J^^^^,y- 


s^-* 


*     APR    1    1902 


CONSTRUCTIVE  BIBLE  STUDIES 

EDITED    BY 

WILLIAM  R.  HARPER  and  ERNEST  D.  BURTON 


THE   PRIESTLY   ELEMENT   IN   THE 
OLD   TESTAMENT 


BY 

WILLIAM  R.  HARPER 


Constructive  Studies 

IN 

THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT 

IN    THE 

OLD  TESTAMENT 

AN  AID  TO  HISTORICAL  STUDY 

FOR   USE  IN  ADK4NCED  BIBLE  CLASSES 


WILLIAM  R.  HARPER 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures  in  the  University  of  Chicago 


REVISED  EDITION 


CHICAGO 

(Cbc  lUntversfts  of  Cbfcago  press 


Copyright  igo2 
By  William  R.  Harper 


PREFACE. 

This  treatment  of  the  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament  is  intended 
to  serve  as  a  guide  for  students  who  wish  to  take  up  the  questions  relating  to 
the  subject  from  an  historical  point  of  view.  The  materials  for  a  preliminary 
study  of  the  various  topics  are  gathered  together,  and  arranged  with  sugges- 
tions as  to  order  and  method  of  procedure. 

It  is  thought  that  the  work  proposed  is  within  the  reach  of  the  more 
mature  pupils  in  the  Sunday  school,  although  the  needs  of  college  and  theo- 
logical students  have  been  kept  especially  in  mind. 

The  general  results  of  modern  historical  criticism  have  been  taken  as  a 
basis  for  the  work,  since  it  is  only  from  the  point  of  view  of  history  that 
these  subjects  may  now  be  considered  intelligently.  Each  special  topic  con- 
nected with  the  general  subject  of  the  Priestly  Element  furnishes  a  beautiful 
illustration  of  the  growth  and  development  of  Israelitish  and  Jewish  thought 
under  the  controlling  influence  of  a  conception  of  God  which  became  more 
and  more  pure  with  the  advancing  centuries. 

Three  methods  of  treatment  have  been  employed,  each  being  deemed 
best  adapted  to  the  case  in  hand,  viz.:  in  Chapter  I,  a  systematic  statement  of 
the  scope  of  the  Priestly  Element ;  in  Chapters  II-IV,  an  historical  statement 
covering  in  barest  outline  the  story  of  the  Priestly  Element  as  a  whole,  in  its 
progress  and  development;  in  Chapters  V-XI,  a  classified  and  comparative 
examination  (indicated  by  questions  and  suggestions  based  upon  the  material 
presented)  of  the  more  important  special  factors  which,  taken  together, 
constitute  the  Priestly  Element. 

Some  effort  has  been  made  to  indicate  definitely  and  fully  the  more  acces- 
sible literature  on  each  topic.  I  wish  to  express  my  appreciation  of  the 
assistance  rendered  me  by  my  colleague,  Dr.  John  M.  P.  Smith,  especially  in 
the  arrangement  and  verification  of  the  scriptural  references,  and  the  refer- 
ences to  the  literature  on  the  various  topics.  For  obvious  reasons  the  latter 
have  been  arranged  chronologically,  the  literature  in  languages  other  than 
English  being  placed  by  itself. 

A  second  series  of  studies,  designed  to  supplement  and  complete  the 
present  work,  is  in  process  of  preparation.  In  these  it  is  proposed  to  take  up 
(i)  the  priestly  literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  viz.,  the  priestly  histories,  the 
codes  of  legislation,  the  Psalms  ;  (2)  the  priestly  ideas  as  a  whole  ;  and  (3)  the 
relation  of  the  Priestly  Element  to  the  work  of  Old  Testament  Prophecy  and 
Wisdom. 

William  R.  Harper. 

December  i,  iqoi. 


CONTENTS. 


Part  I. 

THE  GENERAL  SCOPE  OF  THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT. 
Chapter  I. — The  general  scope  of  the  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament       i 

Part  II. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

Chapter  II.— The  history  of  worship  in  the  earlier  Old  Testament  period      .     .  13 

Chapter  III.— The  history  of  worship  in  the  middle  Old  Testament  period    .     .  27 

Chapter  IV.— The  history  of  worship  in  the  later  Old  Testament  period  ...  42 

Part  III. 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  THE  LAWS  AND  USAGES  OF  WORSHIP. 

Chapter  V. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  the  priest,  considered  compara- 
tively      .     .     61 

Chapter  VT. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  the  place  ot  worship,  consid- 
ered comparatively 74 

Chapter  VII. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  sacrifice,  considered  compara- 
tively     83 

Chapter  VIII. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  feasts,  considered  compara- 
tively  94 

Chapter  IX. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  the  sabbath  and  kindred  insti- 
tutions, considered  comparatively 108 

Chapter  X. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning  clean  and  unclean,  considered 

comparatively '^9 

Chapte"r  XI. — The  laws  and  usages  concerning   prayer  and  related   forms  of 

worship,  considered  comparatively 131 


Paet  Fiest 


I.  General    Scope    of   the    Priestly    Element   in    the    Old 
Testament. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  GENERAL  SCOPE  OF  THE  PRIESTLY  ELEMENT  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

§1.  Three  Elements  Enter  into  Religion. — The  reli- 
gion of  an  individual  or  nation  depends  upon  the  promi- 
nence given  to  one  or  another  of  these  elements: 

(i)    ff^^rj-^z/,  or,  more  technically,  ^«//,  a  word  which   Pss.  103:1;  150. 
expresses  the  general  attitude  of  the  individual  or  group 
of  individuals  toward  an  outside  higher  world  of  super- 
natural  or  divine  existence,  and   includes   the  outward 
acts  that  in  various  forms  symbolize  the  inward  thought. 

(2)  Belief,  or,  more  technically,  creed,  a  word  which   Deut.6:4; 
expresses  the  peculiar  intellectual  position  entertained 

by  an  individual  or  group  of  individuals  concerning  cer- 
tain facts  supposed  to  be  essential,  and  their  explana- 
tion. 

(x\  G?//^«(:A  or,  more  technically,  ^//^/V.y,  which  includes   Mic.  6:8; 
^•^'  r  1  Isa.  1:16,17; 

all  the  acts  and  feelings  of  man  in  so  far  as  they  are  James  1:27. 

related  to  his  duties  to  himself  and  to  his  fellows,  and 

to  the  fundamental  ideas  of  right  and  wrong. 

§2.  Three  Great  Channels  of  Revelation  are  found  in 
the  Old  Testament ;  through  these,  separately  and 
together,  there  has  come  down  to  us  a  wonderful  story 
of  the  interworking  of  God  and  man.     These  are : 

(i)  The  word  of  the  prophet,  including  the  utter-   ]^J- 'j^/^J^J 
ances  through  centuries  of  that  unique  order  established 
to  give  to  the   Hebrew  nation   and   to   the  world    the 
"word  "  of  God. 

(2\  The  counsel  of  the  saafe,  including  the  wise  say-  Jer.  i8:i8; 

V    /  o    '  o  J       Pfov.  I  :g,  25, 

ings  and  philosophical  teachings  (in  the  form  of  proverbs,      30;  8:14. 
riddles,  essays,  dialogues,  etc.)  found,  for  example,  in  the 
books  of  Proverbs,  Job,  and  Ecclesiastes. 

(3)  The  instruction  (or  law)  of  the  priest,  which  forms  Jer.  18:18; 
the  subject  of  consideration  in  this  and  the  following 
studies. 

§3.  The  Place  of  Worship  is  First  of  All  to  be  Noticed. 
—  In  ancient  times  because  it  seemed  to  men  that  certain 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Kings  14:23; 
I  Chron.  21  :2g; 
Exod.  19:2,3, 12. 

Gen.  12:6;  13:18. 


Gen.  16: 13,  14. 


Gen.  31:44-54; 
Gen.  28:18-22. 


Exod.  20:24-26; 

1  Kings  7: 48; 

2  Kings  16:10-15; 
Exod.  27:1-8; 

I  Kings  2:28-30. 


Josh.  4:11; 

1  Sam.  4:3-6; 

2  Sam.  6:2-17; 
Exod.  25:10-21; 
Exod.  25:  22. 


2  Sam.  7:  2-6; 
Exod. ,  chap.  26; 
Exod.  33:7-9; 
Numb. 17:4, 12, 13. 


I  Kings  6:1,2, 
14,  37,  38; 

Ezek.  43:1-12; 

Hag.  1:4-14; 

Ezra  3:12,  13; 
6:13-18. 


places  were  more  favored  by  the  gods  than  were  others,  in 
modern  times  because  men  fancy  that  a  certain  environ- 
ment is  especially  conducive  to  the  spirit  of  worship,  the 
place  has  always  been  a  subject  of  greatest  importance. 
The  place  was  in  early  days  something  connected  with 
nature: 

(i)  High  places,  or  hills,  were  especially  sought  as 
being  the  abode  of  God. 

(2)  Trees  of  a  notable  character  are  frequently  referred 
to  as  connected  with  worship. 

(3)  Springs,  or  wells,  are  places  by  the  side  of  which 
angels  were  thought  to  dwell. 

(4)  Sacred  stones  are  mentioned  as  places  to  which 
the  god  came  to  meet  his  worshiper,  and  on  which  food 
was  placed  or  libations  of  oil  poured  out. 

In  each  of  these  places  Jehovah  had  shown  his  pres- 
ence, and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the  hill  or  tree  or 
spring  or  stone  was  sacred.  (From  Numb.  22  :  41  it  is  to 
be  seen  that  this  idea  of  sacred  places  was  found  among 
other  nations;  cf.  also  Isa.  16:  12.) 

The  place  was  also  often  something  of  a  more  or  less 
artificial  chaxdiCXtr,  as  is  seen  jn  the  use  of  — 

(5)  The  altar,  which  was  sometimes  only  of  loose 
earth  thrown  up  ;  at  others,  of  unhewn  stone  ;  at  still 
others,  of  gold  and  precious  stones.  This  altar  was  the 
refuge  and  asylum  of  him  who  fled  the  hand  of  ven- 
geance, the  witness  of  vows,  the  place  on  which  the  sac- 
rifice was  laid. 

(6)  The  ark,  or  chest,  a  sacred  box  in  which  certain 
sacred  things  were  deposited  ;  which  was  used  in  case  of 
war,  because  it  was  thought  to  afford  protection  ;  and 
was  designated  as  a  place  of  communion  with  God. 

(7)  The  tent,  or  tabernacle,  a  dwelling  in  which  the 
ark  was  preserved,  and  around  which  the  holiest  associa- 
tions clustered.  Moses  made  most  practical  use  of  it,  and 
it  came  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  Hebrew  thought 
and  tradition. 

(8)  The  temple,  which  with  the  progress  of  civilization 
(the  establishment  of  courts  and  the  building  of  palaces) 
took  the  place  of  the  tent,  as  being  more  dignified  than 


GENERAL    SCOPE    OF    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT  3 

a  tent.  There  was  (a)  Solomon's  temple,  erected  at  a 
significant  period  of  national  development;  {f)  the  tem- 
ple of  Ezekiel's  vision,  which  was  destined  to  play  an 
important  part  in  the  history  of  Israel's  religious 
thought ;  and  {c)  the  second  temple,  erected  with  some 
disappointment,  after  the  return  from  exile. 

It  is  to  be  noted,  once  more,  that  communion  with  Exod.  3:8-5; 
God  is  sought  and  obtained  in  connection  with  natural  ^'  *^'* 
places  (hills,  trees,  springs,  stones)  and  with  places 
constructed  by  man  (altars,  ark,  tent,  temple).  It  will 
be  at  a  later  time,  when  temples  are  destroyed,  men 
are  scattered,  groups  living  here  and  there,  when  the 
realistic  conception  gives  place  to  the  idealistic,  and 
the  material  to  the  spiritual,  that  synagogues  and 
churches  will  spring  into  existence,  and,  thus  in  still 
another  form,  satisfy  the  inward  craving  of  humanity 
for  a  sacred  place,  in  which  to  offer  worship  to  the  unseen 
powers. 

§  4.  The  Priest,  or  Minister  of  worship,  was  the  second 
necessity  of  worship,  the  first  being  the  place.  It  was  the 
priest  vi\vo  conducted  the  worship. 

(i)   His  function  was  threefold:  to  carry  the  ark,  to  Deut.  10:8; 

Judg.  17:7-13} 

minister  to  Jehovah,  to  bless  in  his  name.     In  the  earliest      18:3-6; 

Lev.  8:i-io. 

times  the  need  of  having  some  such  priest  was  felt,  his 
presence  being  thought  to  be  attended  with  peculiar 
blessing. 

(2)  The  priest-idea  became  so  strong  in  Israel  that  Deut.  14:2; 
the  nation  itself  was  understood  to  be  a  nation  of  priests,  Ezra  7:21, 25, 26< 
or  a  priestly  nation,   set  apart  to  minister  to  the  other 

nations  of  the  world.  After  the  exile,  kings  ceased  to  sit 
on  Israel's  throne  ;  and  priests,  under  the  form  of  a 
hierarchy,  controlled  the  affairs  of  the  nation.  This  fact 
shows  how  great  a  role  the  priest  played  in  Israelitish 
history. 

(3)  Besides  the  priests  and  prophets  who  served  and  i  Kings  18:19-22; 
spoke  for  Jehovah,  there  were  at  many  times  in  Israel's  Ezek.  8:15, 16. ' 
history  priests  and  prophets  whose  lives  were  devoted  to 

the  service  of  other  gods.  / 

§5.  Sacrifice  was  the  most  significant  act  of  worship       J 
in  ancient  times. 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Gen. i8: i-8; 
1  Sam.  i:  3-8; 

9:23-25; 

Chron.  16:1-3. 


Ps.  51:18,19; 
Isa.  i:  n-17; 
Lev.,  chaps.  1-7; 

8-10;  11;  12-15; 

etc. 


Gen.  8:20; 
Lev.,  chaps.  4,9. 


Lev.  3: 1-6; 
Judg.  20:  26. 


Gen.  35:14; 
Exod.  29:  40,  41; 
Numb.  a8:  7. 

Exod.  30:1,  7-9; 
Numb.  4: 16. 


Lev.,  chaps.  5,  7, 

14; 
Numb.  6: 12. 


(i)  At  first  this  was  a  social  meal,  a  banquet  in  which 
the  offerer  and  his  friends  participated  and  to  which  the 
deity  was  invited.  There  are  frequent  references  to  such 
sacrificial  meals  in  which  the  members  of  a  family,  or  of 
a  clan,  or,  indeed,  of  a  whole  nation  took  part.  This  meal 
was  full  of  joy,  sometimes  boisterous.  Those  who  par- 
ticipated were  eating  and  drinking  with  the  deity  ;  it  was 
a  communion  of  the  worshiper  and  his  god. 

(2)  In  later  times  sacrifice  became  more  formal,  and 
gradually  grew  into  an  exclusively  religious  act.  ,  The 
prophets  strongly  denounced  sacrifice  in  which  the  true 
spirit  of  worship  was  lacking,  or  which  in  itself,  without  a 
proper  life,  was  thought  to  gain  Jehovah's  favor.  The 
book  of  Leviticus  is  devoted  to  the  subject  of  sacrifice, 
viz.,  the  method,  the  kinds,  etc.,  etc.  This  more  formal 
and  exclusively  religious  conception  of  sacrifice  came  to 
prevail  universally  in  the  last  centuries  of  Israel's  history. 

(3)  Several  different  kinds  of  offerings  or  sacrifice 
were  distinguished,  according  as  each  expressed  a  par- 
ticular purpose,  or  was  presented  by  a  particular  method ; 
among  these  were  : 

{a)  The  burnt-offering,  which  consisted  of  the  burning 
of  a  whole  animal  of  the  proper  kind  upon  an  altar  as  an 
offering  to  Jehovah. 

if)  The  peace-offering,  which  was  also  an  animal  sacri- 
fice, but  differed  from  the  burnt-offering  in  that  it 
provided  for  the  giving  of  only  the  blood  and  certain 
specified  parts  of  the  animal  to  Jehovah,  the  rest  being 
eaten  by  the  sacrificial  guests. 

{c)  The  drink-offering,  which  was  a  libation  of  wine, 
or  oil,  usually  made  in  connection  with  other  offerings. 

{a)  The  incense-offering,  in  which  fragrant  spices  were 
burned  with  the  thought  that  the  rising  fragrance  was 
acceptable  to  Jehovah. 

(^)  The  trespass-offering,  which  was  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  expiating  offenses  against  Jehovah  and  man  in 
which  the  damage  could  be  estimated  and  covered  by 
compensation  ;  the  blood  of  the  animal  was  poured  out 
to  Jehovah,  the  fat  was  burned  on  the  altar,  and  the  rest 
was  the  perquisite  of  the  priests. 


GENERAL    SCOPE    OF    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT  5 

(/)    The  sin-offering,  which  occupied  a  very  important  Lev.  4:24-34; 

,  .        ,  ,  ,      r      ,.    ,       ,  ,       .         ,         ,    Lev. ,  chap.  16; 

place  m  the  cultus  and  of  which  the  emphasis  placed  Numb.,  chap.  7; 

upon  the  shedding  of  blood  is  a  conspicuous  feature  ; 
the  specifications  for  this  part  of  the  ritual  are  very  com- 
plete and  detailed. 

ig)   TAe  wave-offering,  consistins  of  certain  portions  Deut.  12:6-17; 

r     ,  .,.  ,  .  ,  .  ,    Numb.  15:  ig-ai; 

of  the  sacrifice  that  were  given  over  to  the  priests  and  Numb.  18:8-29; 

111  1        r  11  1  r       1  ExOd.  29:27,  28, 

were  waved  by  them  before  the  altar  as  a  token  of  the 

fact  that  they  belonged  to  Jehovah,  but  had  been  given 

over  by  him  to  the  priests. 

(4)  Great  care  was  taken  as  to  the  materials  which  Exod.  20:24; 

29: 40;  30;  i; 
might  enter  into  a  sacrifice.    These  were  in  general  flesh,  Lev.  2:  i,  4, 13; 

7^ 12*  231 I3» 

fine  flour  or  meal,  incense,  oil,  wine,  cakes  of  dough, 
salt.  Here  again  important  conceptions  were  associated 
with  each  of  the  materials,  and  regulations  were  enacted 
prescribing  the  exact  character  and  amount  of  materials 
to  be  used. 

§  6.  The  Times  of  Worship  were  an  important  item,  for  i  Sam.  9:12,  13, 
these  were  the  feast  occasions;  these  were  often  merely  iSam.i:3,4. 
the  social  meals  of  a  clan ;  or,  in  other  cases,  were  con- 
nected with  a  pilgrimage.  They  had  their  origin  in  connec- 
tion with  the  times  of  the  moon  and  the  seasons,  arising, 
as  they  did,  out  of  the  pastoral  or  agricultural  life.  Men 
whose  hearts  have  the  same  tendencies  are  drawn 
together,  and  in  the  act  of  association  there  is  worship ; 
for  the  more  closely  they  are  united,  the  nearer  they  may 
come  to  God.  To  know  more  of  God  is  itself  to  worship 
him,  and  the  highest  form  of  worship  is,  perhaps,  that 
which  involves  communion  with  others  as  well  as  with 
God. 

(i)  There  were  three  great  feasts,  the  first  coming  in  Exod.  as :  14-17. 
the  springtime,    the    second   in  the  early  summer,    the 
third  in  the    autumn.       These   correspond    roughly   to 
the  more  modern   Easter,  Pentecost,  and  Thanksgiving 
seasons. 

(2)  There   were  also   special    feasts  and  feast  days,  hos.2:ii. 
which   in    early  times  seem  to    have   been'  of  a  joyous 
character. 

(3)  There   were  days,  like  the   Day  of   Atonement,  Lev.  16:2934. 
which  were  days  of  affliction  rather  than  of  joy. 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Zech.  7:3-5; 
Esther  9: 38-31. 


Gen.  24: 12  fr.; 
I  Sam.  I  :io;  8:6; 
I  Kings  8:23-53; 
Isa.  38:2,  3; 
Weh.  1:4-11;  2: 4- 


Judg.  11:30-39; 
iSfim.  1:11; 
Judg.  13:3-7; 
Numb.  6:  i-ia. 


I  Kings  6: 19; 
Exod.  28:30; 
Gen. 20:3; 28: 
18. 


153.47:9; 
Jer.27:9; 
Mai.  3:5; 
Dan.  2:2; 
Deut.  18:9-13. 


Gen.  4:21; 
Amos  5 :  23 ; 
Isa.  30:29,  32; 
Jer.  48:36; 
Numb.  10:  2; 

31:6; 
Josh.  6:4ff  ; 
Pss.  137:2;  33:2; 
2  Sam.  16: 14; 
Exod.  15:  20; 
P88.I49:3;  150:4. 


(4)  There  were  also  fast  days,  as  well  as  feast  days, 
celebrating  some  great  calamity. 

§  7.  Other  Acts  of  "Worship. —  In  connection  with  and 
forming  a  part  of  worship  were  several  specific  acts, 
such  as — 

(i)  Prayer;  this  was  always  implied  in  the  act  of 
sacrifice,  but  very  frequently  it  was  independent  of 
sacrifice.  If  the  deity  is  a  person,  and  if  he  has  real  inter- 
est in  his  clan  or  tribe  or  people,  he  will  surely  listen  to 
them,  when  in  distress  their  heart  appeals  for  succor  ; 
and  also  when  in  joy  they  express  appreciation  of  some 
great  favor  which  he  has  shown  them.  Abraham's  prayer 
for  the  city  in  which  his  relatives  dwelt  is  characteristic 
of  the  earliest  and  the  latest  periods  of  civilization,  and 
is  thoroughly  typical  of  humanity. 

(2)  The  vow  was  a  kind  of  prayer,  very  common  in 
ancient  times,  and,  when  once  made,  regarded  as  invio- 
lable. It  sometimes  involved  a  simple  gift;  at  other 
times,  perhaps,  as  in  the  case  of  Jephthah,  the  sacrifice 
of  a  human  life  ;  and  again,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Nazirite, 
it  signified  setting  apart  to  the  service  of  God. 

(3)  The  oracle  and  dream,  as  methods  of  ascertaining 
the  divine  will,  must  be  counted  as  acts  of  worship.  In 
these  methods,  as  in  all  the  others,  the  Israelites  did  not 
differ  from  the  other  ancient  nations  in  the  midst  of 
whom  they  dwelt. 

(4)  Sorcery  was  employed  in  many  forms,  for  there 
were  diviners,  augurs,  enchanters,  charmers,  consulters 
with  familiar  spirits,  wizards,  and  necromancers;  but  acts 
of  this  kind  were  always  forbidden. 

(5)  Music  and  dancing  wtxt  z.Q.coxn'^zxiVtXitnX.'s,  oi  wor- 
ship. If  worship  is  the  expression  of  the  heart  in  com- 
munion with  God,  it  must  include  melody  and  rhythm, 
sound  and  movement.  Music  has  always  formed  a  part 
of  worship,  and  in  many  cases  dancing  has  accompanied, 
not  only  festival,  but  worship. 

§8.  Songs  and  Hymns  of  Worship. — These  furnish  us, 
perhaps,  the  highest  product  of  the  priest-work ;  for, 
although  much  of  the  Psalter  is  prophetic  in  its  character, 
by  far  the  greater  part  is  the  high  and  holy  expression 


GENERAL    SCOPE    OF    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT  7 

of  the  soul  of  individual  or  nation  in  its  deepest  com- 
munion with  God  ;  and  nowhere  in  all  literature  may 
religious  songs  of  so  tender  and  deep  a  character  be 
found  as  in  the  Hebrew  Psalter,  the  hymn-book  of  the 
Hebrew  temple,  the  work  of  the  Hebrew  priest.  These 
have  been  variously  and  quite  minutely  classified;  but 
here  reference  may  be  limited  to  — 

(i)  Songs   of   thanksgiving,    in   which    gratitude   is   Pss.  103;  134;  136. 
expressed  for  great  favors  received  from  Jehovah  and  his 
praises  are  gladly  sung. 

(2)  Songs  of  petition  and  prayer,  in  which  the  poet  Pss.  80;  88;  102. 
pleads  for   the    intervention    of   Jehovah    in    behalf   of 

himself  or  of  Israel,  bringing  deliverance  from  difficulty 
and  danger,  or  restoration  to  divine  favor. 

(3)  Songs  of  penitential  confession,  in  which  the  sin-   Pss.  51;  116;  130. 
ner  pours  out  his  confession  of  sin  and  guilt. 

§  9.  Laws  Regulating  Worship  and  Life  were,  likewise, 
largely  formulated,  promulgated,  and  executed  by  the 
priests.  Legislation,  therefore,  in  its  stricter  sense,  was 
the  function  of  the  priests,  rather  than  of  the  prophets  or 
sages.  The  priest's  work  included  something  more  than 
the  various  elements  which  enter  into  or  are  connected 
with  what  we  would  today  call  worship.  In  those  days 
the  religious  life  and  the  secular  life  were  the  same. 
Religion  and  politics  were  the  same.  This  means  that 
it  was  impossible  to  draw  a  line  between  religious  life 
and  ordinary  life.    The  priest's  work  dealt  with  both.    It  Deut.  22: 1-12; 

,      ,  ,  ,  .  ,  ,  ,  Exod.  21:1-35; 

had  to  do,  consequently,  with  such  matters  as  the  treat-      22:1-27. 

ment  of  one's  neighbor's  cattle,  the  treatment  of  birds, 

the  buildina:  of  a  house.     There  were  laws,  for  example.   Lev.  19:9-37; 
,       ,  ,  .  ,     ,  ,        Exod.  23: 1-9. 

concernmg  the  harvest,  the  oppression  of  the  poor,  the 

treatment  of  defectives,  tale-bearing,  etc.,  etc.  These 
are  a  few  examples  only,  taken  from  the  great  law- 
books, Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Deuteronomy.  It  is  to  be 
understood,  of  course,  that  these  laws,  as  they  were  from 
time  to  time  formulated,  included  the  teachings  of  the 
prophets  and  sages,  as  they  appeared  and  did  their  work 
and  passed  away.  But  in  addition  to  these  laws  of  soci- 
ological character  there  were  the  laws  which  regulated 


8 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Exod.  33:18, 19; 
Deut.  30: 15-20; 
Lev.,  chap.  21. 


2Chron.5:2— 7:2 
cf.  I  Kings, 
chap.  8. 


Chron.,  chaps. 
29-32; 
t/.  2  Kings,  chaps, 
18-20. 


2  Chron.  35: 

tf.  2  Kings 

23:21-23, 


the  details  of  worship  in  all  respects,  e.  g.,  the  priest,  his 
dress,  his  maintenance,  the  offerings,  their  material,  etc., 
etc.  These  more  strictly  come  into  consideration  in 
connection  with  topics  already  discussed  (cf.  §§3,  7). 

§  10.  The  History  of  Worship  was  naturally  written  or 
compiled  by  priests,  and  thus  constitutes  a  part  of  the 
priest-work  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  history  of  Israel, 
as  we  find  it  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  had  already 
I  Chron.,  chaps,  ^ggn  written  (about  550  B.  C).  This  history  was  prepared 
<r/.  2  Sam.  6:12-19.  from  a  wholly  prophetic  point  of  view.  It  was  intended 
to  teach  prophetic  lessons,  especially  those  connected 
with  the  idea  of  the  enormity  of  sin  and  its  disastrous 
consequences.  At  a  later  date  (about  300  B.  C.)  the 
priests  undertook  to  traverse  the  field  of  sacred  history, 
and  in  so  doing  used,  to  some  extent,  the  same  original 
sources.  This  priestly  history  is  found  in  the  books  of 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah.  In  these  books  the 
thought  always  uppermost  is  that  of  the  history  of  worship. 
Its  purpose  was  to  assist  in  establishing  regular  service 
in  the  second  temple,  and  to  kindle  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people  a  national  life  and  spirit,  and  respect  for  the  insti- 
tutions of  the  national  religion.  The  differences  in  matter, 
tone,  and  spirit  between  the  prophetic  and  the  priestly 
histories  is  easily  seen  by  a  comparison  of  the  treatment 
which  each  gives  to  the  same  subject,  e.  g.: 
(i)  The  dedication  of  the  temple. 

(2)  The  transfer  of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem. 

(3)  The  accession  of  Solomon. 

(4)  The  account  of  the  plague  in  David's  reign. 

(5)  The  sin  of  David  with  Bathsheba,  which  is  not 
mentioned  in  Chronicles. 

(6)  The  organization  of  the  priests  and  Levites  and 
temple  officials,  which  is  treated  in  full  in  Chronicles,  and 
not  mentioned  in  Samuel  and  Kings. 

It  is  proposed,  after  this  general  view  of  the  work  of  the  priests  as 
a  whole,  to  undertake  to  do  five  things  in  the  following  series  of 
studies : 

(i).  To  trace  the  history  of  worship  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  Old  Testament  times,  through  the  early,  the  middle,  and  the 
late  periods. 


1  Chron.,  chaps. 

28,  29; 
cf.  I  Kings  1 :  32- 

40. 

1  Chron., chap. 21; 
(-/.2  Sam.,  chap. 

24. 

2  Sam.  11:2-27. 


Chron. 
23-26. 


chaps. 


GENERAL    SCOPE    OF    PRIESTLY    ELEMENT  9 

(2)  To  classify  and  note  the  elements  of  worship  in  the  Hebrew 
Psalter,  the  Christian's  Book  of  Psalms. 

(3)  To  analyze  and  present  the  essential  points  of  interest  in  the 
histories  which  the  priests  themselves  prepared,  and  which  are  found 
in  the  books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah. 

(4)  To  determine  the  great  ideas  which  entered  into  and  controlled 
the  priest-work. 

(5)  To  explain  as  far  as  it  may  be  possible  {a)  the  purpose  and 
spirit  of  \.\\\'&  priest-element  2l^  it  appears  in  its  various  forms  in  Israel- 
itish  history  and  literature  ;  {b)  the  permanent,  as  distinguished  from 
the  transitory,  elements  which  it  contained ;  {c)  the  contribution  which 
it  made  to  Christianity,  or,  in  other  words,  its  relationship  to  Chris- 
tianity. 


Paet  Secoistd 

THE    HISTORY    OF    WORSHIP 

II.    History  of  Worship  in  the  Earlier  Old  Testament  Period. 

III.  History  of  Worship  in  the  Middle  Old  Testament  Period. 

IV.  History  of  Worship  in  the  Later  Old  Testament  Period. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY    OF    WORSHIP    IN    THE    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD. 

§11.  Worship  Alone  Constituted  Religion  in  the  earliest  times.  It 
was  later  that  greater  and  greater  emphasis  came  to  be  placed  on  con- 
duct and  belief  (see  §  i).  A  ceremony  or  religious  rite  was  associated 
(in  the  various  ancient  religions)  with  some  fact,  or  supposed  fact,  or 
legend,  or  myth.  But  it  was  the  rite  which  constituted  the  religious 
element,  and  not  any  belief  concerning  the  origin  of  the  rite.  "It 
made  no  difference  what  the  worshiper  believed  concerning  the  cere- 
mony, if  only  he  performed  it  regularly  and  accurately."  "  What  was 
obligatory  or  meritorious  was  the  exact  performance  of  sacred  acts 
prescribed  by  religious  traditions."  It  was  the  prophets  and  sages 
who  introduced  at  the  satme  time  higher  conceptions  of  God  and 
higher  conceptions  of  life. 

See  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (2d  ed.),  pp.  17-22;  Menzies,  His- 
tory of  Religion,  •^•^.  6-13,  64  f.;  ^'E.lA.Yi^Xi'SiY.^,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel, 
pp.  52-5- 

§  12.  A  Semitic  Period  in  the  Development  of  Worship  preceded  the 
earliest  Hebrew  worship,  and  formed  the  basis  of  it.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  Semitic  family  (i)  gave  to  the  world  the  two 
earliest  civilizations  of  which  we  have  knowledge,  the  Egyptian  and 
the  old  Babylonian,  and  controlled  the  world's  political  history  for 
forty  or  fifty  centuries;  (2)  has  been  mediary,  not  only  in  the  field  of 
commerce  and  between  man  and  man,  but  also  in  that  higher  field  of 
religion  between  God  and  man,  in  that  they  have  proved  to  be  the 
religious  teachers  of  the  world,  since  through  them  have  come  the 
world's  three  highest  faiths  —  Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Moham- 
medanism. 

See  G.  A.  Smith,  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  28  ff.;  W.  R. 
Smith,  op.  cit.,  pp.  28-83;  C.  G.  Montefiore,  The  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Hebrews  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1892),  pp.  22-30;  J.  F.  McCurdy,  History,  Prophecy 
and  the  Monuments,  Vol.  I,  pp.  S-il ;  Fritz  Hommel,  The  Civilization  of  the  East, 
pp.  25-7. 

§  13.  The  Most  Ancient  Form  of  Semitic  Religion,  the  parent  of  all 
others,  was  that  found   in  the  old  mother-home  of  Arabia.     It  was  a 

13 


14  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

religion  well  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  people,  who,  at  that  time^ 
were  still  in  clans.  The  Hebrews,  together  with  the  Moabites,  Ammon- 
ites, and  Edomites,  had  "their  root  in  a  state  of  society  when  there 
was  no  large  and  orderly  community,  but  only  a  multitude  of  small 
and  restless  tribes ;  when  there  was  no  written  law,  but  only  custom ; 
and  when  there  was  no  central  authority  to  execute  justice,  but  it 
was  left  to  a  man's  fellow-clansmen  to  avenge  his  murder."  In  this 
time  — 

(i)  There  was  a  god  for  each  clan,  and  this  god  was  thought  to  be  a 
very  remote  ancestor.  To  leave  the  clan  meant  to  leave  the  god.  This 
clan-god  was  closely  connected  with  every  undertaking  of  the  clan, 
whether  of  peace  or  war ;  and  his  name  everywhere  was  "  Lord,'* 
"King,"  "Mighty  One." 

See  Menzies,  History  of  Religion,  pp.  74-6  ;  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the 
Semites  (2d  ed.),  pp.  35-9 ;  D'Alviella,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Conception  of  God 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1891),  pp.  204-7. 

(2)  The  worship  of  the  clan-god  was  important,  because  every 
detail  of  life  was  dependent  on  his  favor.  .  His  favor  or  anger  was 
shown  at  certain  spots,  which  thenceforward  became  sacred  places,  and 
here  those  who  inquired  of  him  would  find  him.  The  god  could  not, 
of  course,  be  worshiped  anywhere  outside  of  the  land  which  belonged  to 
him  ;  and  if  one  left  that  land  and  entered  another,  he  must  at  once 
transfer  his  worship  to  the  god  of  the  new  land. 

See  Menzies,  op.  cit.,  pp.  160  f.;  Budde,  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile,  pp. 
53-5. 

(3)  7%(?/r^j^«/ Zf/<?  played  a  larger  part  than  the  future  life  ;  for, 
while  the  early  Semites  believed  in  the  continued  existence  of  the 
departed,  they  regarded  them  as  destitute  of  energy,  as  "  shades  laid 
in  the  ground."  "After  death,  it  was  held,  even  religion  came  to  an 
end.  A  man  must  enjoy  the  society  of  his  god  in  this  life;  after 
death  he  could  take  part  in  no  sacrifice,  and  could  render  to  God  no 
thanks  or  service." 

See  Menzies,  op.  cit.,  p.  161  ;  C.  G.  Montefiore,  op.  cit.,  pp.  454-7 ;  R.  H. 
Charles,  A  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  pp.  51-4. 

(4)  This  explains,  in  some  measure,  Ihe  rites  of  worship  which 
existed  in  these  primitive  times,  viz.: 

(a)  The  sacrifice;  the  man  sought  a  sacred  place  (/.  e.,  a  place 
where  the  god  was  likely  to  be  found),  killed  an  animal,  put  the  blood 
of  the  animal  on  a  stone;  the  god  touched  the  blood,  the  man  touched 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  I  5 

it,  and  this  act  was  a  renewal  of  the  declaration  that  the  man  and  the 
god  were  of  the  same  blood,  and  that  the  covenant  between  them  was 
renewed. 

See  Menzies,  op.  cit.,  pp.  65-8,  162;  Schultz,  "The  Significance  of  Sacri- 
fice in  the  Old  Testament,"  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  257-61  ; 
G.  S.  GooDSPEED,  "The  Atonement  of  Communion,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XVII, 
pp.  96-106. 

{U)  The  feast  or  banquet;  at  this  the  god  was  supposed  to  sit  with 
his  people  and  to  receive  his  share  of  the  animal  just  slain.  In  late 
times,  when  the  god  was  thought  to  live  above,  his  share  was  burned 
and  he  received  the  savor  or  smell  of  the  sacrifice.  The  feast  included 
dancing,  and  even  gross  kinds  of  indulgence.  All  was  joyful.  Happi- 
ness, reaching  even  to  "orgiastic  ecstasy,"  was  universal. 

See  W.  R.  Smith,  op.  cit.,  pp.  253-8 ;  Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol. 
I,  pp.  188  f. 

§14.  Three  Great  Periods  are  seen  in  the  develop-  josh. 24:2,3. 
ment  of  this  primitive  Semitic  worship,  as  it  appears  in 
the  Old  Testament  history.  Two  opinions  exist  as  to 
whether  the  writing  of  the  Pentateuch  (or  five  books  of 
the  law)  was  practically  finished  in  the  days  of  Moses,  or 
in  the  days  of  Ezra. 

See  Green,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch,  pp.  31-58; 
Briggs,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch,  1897,  pp.  156-62; 
Driver,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.), 
pp.  82-98,  123-6,  135-59;  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby, 
The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  17-23. 

This  question  does  not  concern  us  here ;  for  all  stu- 
dents agree  that,  whatever  may  have  been  the  date  of 
writing,  the  date  of  adoption  of  the  laws  and  ceremonies 
by  the  masses  of  the  people  is  definitely  announced  in 
Scripture,  viz.: 

(i)   The  Levitical  law  in  all  its  fulness  a.nd  Xhe  Leviti-   Neh.,chap.  8. 
cal  ritual  of  worship  were  not  adopted  until  the  times  of 
Ezra  (440  B.  C). 

(2)  The  Deiiteronomic  law,  as  laid  down  in  Deuter-   2Kings22:8— 
onomy,  did  not  come  into  force  until  Josiah's  time  (621 

B.  C).     It  is  clear  that  there  was 

(3)  An  earlier  legal  code  and  an  earlier  form  of  wor-   Exod.  20:23— 
ship  which  served  to  connect  the  old  Semitic  worship 

with   the    Deuteronomic.      This   earliest   of    the    three 


1 6  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

periods  is  first  to  be  considered  and  presents  itself  in 
three  different  stages,  viz.: 

Gen.  47:1-10.  (a)    The  primitive  Hebrew  stage  —  that  which  existed 

during  the  days  of  the  patriarchs,  and  while  Israel  was 
still  a  nomadic  people,  wandering  from  place  to  place. 

judg.  1:1-4;  {b)    The  Canaanitish  stage — that  in  which  the  primi- 

*  "  '^'  tive  form  came  into  contact  with  the  corrupt  and  licen- 

tious practices  of  the  Canaanitish  religion;  it  was  at  this 
time  that  Israel  was  settling  down  to  an  agricultural  life. 

Hos.  11:1-4;  {c)   The  prophetic  stage — that  in  which  the  prophets 

Amos'a'io-ia;  made  heroic  struggle  against  the  corruption  and  idola- 
try of  Israel,  by  pointing  out  a  truer  conception  of  God, 
the  adoption  of  which  affected  both  the  conduct  and  the 
worship  of  the  nation. 

Josh.  24:3-7.  §  15.  In  the  Primitive  Stage  of  the  Early  Period  the 

Worship  was,  of  course,  only  slightly  different  from  that 
common  Semitic  worship  described  above.  The  people 
were  still  wandering  about.  Leaders  had  been  raised  up 
by  God  whose  work  would  in  time  lead  the  people 
higher  and  higher  toward  a  proper  conception  of 
God  and  of  his  worship.  But,  as  the  Old  Testament 
so  clearly  shows,  the  people  hung  back;  refused  to 
follow  the  divinely  appointed  leaders  ;  and  only  after 
fifteen  hundred  years  of  instruction  finally  acknowledged 
Jehovah  to  be  the  only  God.  The  facts  concerning 
worship  are  these  : 

Gen.  12:6-8;  (i)    The  place  ^t\tz\zA  for  worship  by  the  patriarchs 

26:24!;'  was  the  place  in  which  they  pitched   their  tent;   e.  g., 

U-ial'  Abraham  worshiped  at  Shechem,  and  near  Bethel;  Jacob 

at    Beersheba,    and    at    Peniel,    and    at    Bethel.      Trees, 

springs,  and  stones  are  also  mentioned. 

Gen.  31 -.46.  The  a/tar  must   have   been   something  very  simple, 

consisting  only  of  stones  gathered  together,  or  of  earth 
thrown  up. 

Gen.  31 :  19,  34  «•  Teraphim,  or  household  gods,  were  found  in  Jacob's 

family.  There  seems  not  to  have  been  an  ark  or  chest 
in  use. 

Gen.  22:13;  27:25;  (2)    The  priest  was  the  leader,  whoever  he  may  have 

Exod! 24:4-8.  been,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  or  Moses.  There  was  no 
class  of  priests. 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  1 7 

(3)  The  sacrifice  was  a  family  meal,  or  a  clan  meal,  /.  e..   Gen.  26:28-30; 
,  T  ■       1     r  o     ,  •  ,,  ,      .       Gen.  8:20, 21; 

a  banquet.     It  consisted  of  flesh,  specially  prepared  ;  its   Gen.  18:1-8. 

savor  was  smelled  by  Jehovah  ;  it  was  eaten  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  deity. 

(4)  Z7i<? ///«(?j' were  irregular  ;  sacrifice  was  offered  at   c/.  references 

.  ™,  .  ,  ,  ,  ,       given  above. 

any  time.     There  is  no   reference  to  the  observance  of 

dates  marked  by  the  moon,  or  of  the  sabbath. 

(5)  Other  acts  of  worship  are  seen  in  — 

id)  The  prayer  of  Abraham   for  the  deliverance  of  Gen.  18:23-33; 

24 :  12  ff . ;  32:9- 

Lot,  of  Abraham's  servant  for  guidance  in  the  pursuit  of      12. 

his  mission,  and  of  Jacob  for  deliverance  from  Esau. 

{b\  The  f^ze/ of  Abraham  paid  to  Melchizedek  :  and   Gen.  14:1824; 

28:20-22. 
that  of  Jacob  made  on  his  journey  to  Laban,  the  Syrian. 

(c\  The  dreams  ol  the  patriarchs,  which  as  methods   Gen.  15:1221; 
,  .   .  .       .  ,  ,       1   .  ,         28:10-18;  35:9- 

of  receiving  communications  from  the  deity  are  to  be      i3;37:s-io. 

classed  with  acts  of  worship. 

(d)  The  cu/>  of  divination  of  Joseph,  and  the  teraphim   Gen.  44:1-5- 

(see  p.  16). 

(6)  Songs  and  hymns,  laws,  and  history -writing  had   Gen.  49:1-26; 
not  yet  taken  formal  shape  ;  or,  at  all  events,  they  have  Exod'.  2o:i-i7.' 
not  come  down  to  us  in  the  form  which  existed  in  these 

early  days.  The  present  literary  form  of  pieces  like 
the  "Blessing  of  Jacob,"  the  "  Song  of  Moses  at  the  Red 
Sea,"  and  the  "  Decalogue"  comes  from  a  time  later 
than  the  settlement  in  Canaan. 

§  16.  In  the  Canaanitish  Stage  of  the  Early  Period  the  Judg.  2:1-5. 
worship  was  greatly  changed.  This  was  due  partly  to  the 
change  from  nomadic  to  agricultural  life,  and  partly  to 
contact  with  Canaanitish  forms  of  worship,  which  were 
peculiarly  rich  and  fascinating.  The  name  of  the 
Canaanitish  divinity,  Baal,  meant  "lord."  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  the  Israelite  would  feel  that  he  was  not  doing 
justice  to  his  God,  if  he  did  not  pay  him  every  possible 
honor,  or  at  least  the  honors  paid  their  gods  by  his 
neighbors,  the  Canaanites.  Consequently  much  that 
was  Canaanitish  was  now  appropriated. 

(i)  Places  and  representatives;  here  arise  — 

id)  The  hi^h  places,  all  over  the   land,  which  soon   judg.  6:25-32; 

\    t  t'      -r  1  Sam.  1:3. 

became  centers  of  corruption  and  licentiousness. 


Sam.  14 :  41 ; 
28 : 3-6. 


18  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

judg.  3:7;  6:25,  (b)  The  pillars  and  the  tree  trunks,  or  Asherim,  which 

30;  9:6;  10:6. 

were  to  be  found  at  the  high  places  and  were  taken  over  into 

the  Jehovah-worship  which  was  carried  on  at  these  places. 
]udg.  2o:27f.;  [c)  The  ark  or  chest,  which  was  thought  to  represent 

the  deity,  and  which  the  people  carried  with  them  when     , 

they  went  to  battle,  as  in  Eli's  days. 
cf.  Exod,  32:8,  {d)  The  image  of  the  serpent,  or  of  the  bull,  which  was      "^ 

Numb. '21: 8  f.;       adopted,  now  and  again,  as  the  proper  representation  of 

deity. 

[e)  The  Urim  and  Thunifnim,  which  were  carried  in  a 

pocket  of  the  priestly  ephod,  were  in  use  as  a  means  of      ] 

discovering  the  divine  will  with  reference  to  any  course 

of  action. 

Judg.  17:7;  (2)  Th.Q  priest  W2is  sometimes  a  professional,  bearing 

Judg.  18:3-5,19,     ,     ^  ^         ^  ^  .  ^        ,  .         J       ^         .  r      •        , 

20;  the  name  Levite,  and  cultivated  a  certain  professional 

Judg.6:i9;i3:i9;  ,  ,  •    ,      ,  •       j  t        •.  tt  . 

17:5;  6:25-27;  tone   by   which  he  was    recognized    as    a   Levite.     He    f; 

II :  31,  39.  ■'  ° 

seems  to  have  been  more  acceptable  than  the  patriarch    / 

or  oldest  son,  who  in  the  past  had  performed  priestly  duties,    ly 

The  priest  went  about  wherever  he  could  find  employ-     j 

ment.    But  the  old  family  priesthood  still  continued,  and 

sacrifice  was  not  restricted  to  any  class  of  priests. 

Judg.  6:19-21,26-  (i\  Sacrifice  was  the  same  as  before,  an   act  of  com- 

28;  13:16-23;  ^'^'  ■' 

I  Sam.  1:3-5,9,    munion   with  the   deity.     The  burnt-offering  seems   to 


13-15 


have  occupied  a  more  prominent  place. 


I  Sam.  20:5,  6,  (4)    Times  and  seasons.  —  Now  there   arose   feasts  of 

18,  24,  27,  29 ;  ^   ' 

Judg. 9:27;2i:i9;   the  moon  ;  the  sabbath  was  also  observed,  probably  as  a 

I  Sam.  1 : 3,  13. 

time  of  rejoicing;  there  were  also  the  Feasts  of  Harvest 
and  Vintage,  because  Israel  had  now  become  an  agricul- 
tural people.  These  feasts  furnished  opportunity  for 
drunkenness  and  licentiousness. 

(s)   Other  acts. — We  read  of  the  — 
Judg.  13:8;  ^  ' 

15:18;  iSam.  {a)  Prayers  of  Manoah,  Samson,  and  Hannah. 

Judg.  11:30,  31,  {b)    Vows  of  Jephthah   and  of  Hannah,  and  of  the 

35-40;  21:1,  7,   ti-ibes  of  Israel  against  Benjamin,  because  of  its  outrage 

am.  I.  II.         upon  the  Levite's  concubine. 

Judg.  13:3-5,  {c)    Visions   of   Samson's   parents,   and   of   the    child 

iSam.'sri-iB.        Samuel,  during  his  sojourn  in  the  temple  at  Shiloh. 

I  Sam.  28:7-14.  {d^  Sorcery  and  witchcraft  in  connection  with  Saul's 

attempt  to  learn  the  outcome  of  his  contest  with  the 

Philistines. 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  1 9 

(e)  Music  and  dancing  in  connection  with  the  yearly   Judg.  21:19-21; 

I  Sam.  10: 5; 
feasts  at  Shiloh,  with  the  sons  of  the  prophets,  and,  a  little      16:16-22;  18:6, 

later,  on  the  part  of  David.     This  was  characteristic  of 

the  joyous  spirit  that  permeated  the  religion  of  these  times. 

(6)  Songs  and  hvfnns  are   seen   in   the  exodus  sonsf,   Exod.  15:1-21; 

Judg. ,  chap.  5; 

with  its  refrain;  the  song  of  Deborah;  and  the  song  of  i  Sam  2:1-10, 
Hannah. 

.  (7)  Laws  were  unquestionably  taking  form,  under 
divine  guidance,  as  the  codification  of  custom.  To  what 
extent  this  was  true  is  a  matter  of  dispute  between  {a) 
those  who  believe  that  the  Israelitish  legislation,  as  it 
has  come  down  to  us,  was  the  work  of  one  generation, 
and  of  one  man,  Moses,  and  {b)  those  who  believe  that 
this  legislation  is  the  product  of  seven  or  eight  centuries 
of  history,  although  based  upon  and  growing  out  of  the 
work  of  Moses  {cf.  references  to  literature  on  §  14). 

§  17.  In  the  Prophetic  Stage  of  the  Early  Period  great  Amos,  chap.  5; 
influences  were  at  work  to  purge  and  purify  the  corrup-   \sl''chlv'i.' 
tion  which  had  entered  into  Israel's  worship,  and  to  teac  h 
a  conception  of  God  which,  in  itself,  would  lead  to  a 
higher  type  of  worship.      This  period  begins    roughly 
with  Samuel's  work  of  reformation  and  closes  just  before 
Josiah's  reformation   (621  B.C.).      The  great  names  of  2 Kings 23 : 1-3. 
the  period  are  Samuel  and  David;  Elijah,  Elisha,  and 
Jonah;  Amos  and  Hosea ;  Isaiah  and  Micah ;  and,  last 
of  all,  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah,  in  whose  days  the  refor- 
mation came.    The  details  of  this  reformation  belong  to 
the  second  or  middle  period;  but  the  preparation  for  2 Kings 23 : 4-14. 
the  great  changes  wrought  in  621  B.  C.  was  made  by  the 
prophets  of  the  preceding  centuries.     The  actual  prac- 
tices of  this  sub-period  were  full  of  superstition.     Let  us 
first  note  what  they  were   and  then  the  attitude  of  the 
prophets  toward  them. 

( I )  Pla  ces  of  worsh  ip . 

[a)   The  high  places  were  still  used  in  different  parts   i  Sam.  9:12-14, 
of  the  country,  as  is  seen  in  the  cases  of  Samuel,  whom    iKi'ngs'3:3,  4; 
Saul  first  met  at  the  sacrifice  on  the  high  place;  of  Solo-      12': 3rf.';  14:23; 
mon,  even  when  the  temple  had  been  built ;  of  Jeroboam  ;      15:4;  17 '9,  ",' 

2Q    32  !    18:41 

of  the  people  of  Judah  in  Rehoboam's  time  and  under      etc. 
later  kings ;  and  of  Ahaz. 


20  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

1  Kings  14: 23;  {^)    T/ig  />t7/ars  a»d  A s/ierim  occupied  even  a  larger 
10:27;  17:' 10;      place  than  before,  continuing  in   general  use  until   the 

Hos.3:4;  10:1,2.  f  T       ■    i_ 

reign  of  Josiah. 

2  Sam.,  chap.  6;  (c)   The    ark  was    transferred   with    great   solemnity 

cf.  I  Chron. ,  '  s>  j 

chaps.  13, 15, 16.  to  Jerusalem,  when  that  city  became  under  David  the 
nation's  capital.  This  supreme  act  of  worship  was 
accompanied  by  music  and  dancing. 

1  Kings,  chaps.  5,  (d)   The  temple  was  built  by  Solomon  ;  this  act  was 

6;  7:13-8:  66;  -^ 

c/.\  Chron.,       full  of  significance  for  the   future   history   of  worship. 
19;  '    '     '       As  the  king  had  his  palace,  so  Jehovah  was  to  have  his 

2  Chron.,  chaps.  ,  _,,  .    ,  ,  ,  ,        , 

2-7.  temple.     The  ceremonial   would  now  be  better  organ- 

ized; a  basis  was  furnished  for  future  development; 
priests  and  singers  must  be  provided  for  regular  service. 
While  at  this  central  place  the  worship  would  henceforth 
be  conducted  in  a  purer  form,  but  at  the  same  time  with 
luxurious  magnificence,  the  old  routine  continued  in  all 
its  corruption  throughout  the  country  at  large. 
I  Sam.  28:1-25.  (g^    The  spirit  of  Samuel,  called   Elohim  (/.  e.,  God), 

was  thought  to  have  been  called  forth  after  death  by  the 
witch  of  Endor,  in  order  to  speak  with  Saul  at  his  request. 
1  Kings  12:25-33;  (/)   The  calves  setup  at  Bethel  and  Gilgal  were  figures 

Hos.  8:5,  e'.   '    '   of  Jehovah,  intended  to  be  worshiped  by  the  Israelites  of 
the  north,  in  order  that  they  might  not  be  induced  to  go 
to  Jerusalem  for  worship. 
I  Kings  12 : 31-33 ;  (2)  77/^ /r/W/ now  became  a  more  important  person- 

I  Kings 3: 15;   '     age;    the   professional   element    increased.     The    bond 

I  Kings  2:26,  27;    ,  ,  1  .        ,  ,  ,  J 

2Kings  11:4,  9,  between  those  engaged  in  the  same  work  was  strengthened 
2Kingsi6:'i2-i6.'  by  association.  The  Levitewas  gaining  ground,  as  over 
against  the  older  patriarchal  priest.  The  temple  required 
professional  service.  Samuel  was  a  priest,  and  in  his 
time  the  monarchy  took  shape,  which  meant  a  separation 
of  the  state  and  church.  With  the  royal  sanction  the 
priestly  order  was  greatly  strengthened  ;  but  the  king 
maintained  supremacy  and,  according  to  the  old  patriar- 
chal idea,  offered  sacrifice  as  head.  Since  the  priest  was 
judge,  he  formulated  decisions,  which  in  later  times  were 
to  become  law. 

1  Kings  8: 62-65;  (3)  Sacrifice  was  offered,  sometimes  upon  a  great 
Exod.  23:18;  iscale  ;  the  old  idea  of  communion  with  God  continued  ; 
Mic.  6:7;    '         and  a  great  feature  of  the  sacrifice  was  the  element  of 

2  Kings  17: 17. 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD 


joy.  The  sacrifice  might  not  be  offered  with  leavened 
bread.  The  first-fruits  of  the  ground  were  called  for. 
Sometimes  human  sacrifice  was  offered. 

(4)  Times  were  now  more  definitely  fixed. 

{a)  The  sabbath  was  an  established  institution,  what- 
ever may  have  been  its  origin. 

{f)  The  beginnings  of  a  sabbatical  year  were  made, 
in  the  custom  of  allowing  the  land  to  lie  fallow  every 
seventh  year. 

(c)  Three  agricultural  feasts,  with  dates  dependent 
upon  the  climate,  were  observed,  viz.:  the  Feast  of 
Unleavened  Bread  (Easter  time),  in  celebration  of  the 
departure  from  Egypt ;  the  Feast  of  Harvest,  when  the 
first-fruits  were  gathered  ;  and  the  Feast  of  Ingathering, 
in  the  autumn. 

(5)  Other  acts. 

(a)  Prayers  continued  to  be  offered,  as  in  the  case  of 
Samuel  at  Mizpah,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  people's 
demand  for  a  king ;  of  David,  after  Nathan  had  made 
known  to  him  Jehovah's  purpose  to  establish  his  house 
in  Israel,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Bathsheba's 
child;  of  Solomon,  at  the  time  of  the  dedication  of  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  ;  of  Elijah,  for  the  restoration  of  the 
widow's  son  to  life,  and  on  Mount  Carmel ;  and  of  Heze- 
kiah,  for  deliverance  from  Sennacherib. 

((5)  Vows  were  still  made,  as,  for  example,  in  the  case 
of  Absalom,  and  of  the  Nazirites. 

{c)  Oracles  and  dreams  are  seen  in  David's  inquiry  of 
Jehovah  after  the  death  of  Saul,  and  before  the  battle 
with  the  Philistines  in  the  valley  of  Rephaim  ;  in  Jehovah's 
message  to  David  through  Nathan  ;  in  Solomon's  dream 
at  Gibeon  ;  in  Ahab's  consultation  of  the  prophets  before 
advancing  upon  Ramoth-Gilead ;  and  in  the  use  made 
of  the  brazen  altar  by  King  Ahaz.  The  visions  of 
Amos  and  Isaiah  may  also  be  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection. 

(d)  Sorcery  was  practiced,  for  it  was  distinctly  opposed 
by  Saul  and  Samuel  (although  Samuel  himself  is  said  to 
have  been  called  from  the  grave  by  a  witch),  and  by  later 
prophets. 


Exod.  20:8; 
Exod.  23:12; 
Hos.  2:  II ; 
2  Kings  4 :  23  • 

11:5,  7,  9; 

16:18. 
Exod.  23: 10,  1 


Exod.  23:14-17; 
Exod.  34:22,  23; 
I  Kings  8:2; 

12:32; 
Hos.  2:11. 


1  Sam.  7:5,  8,  9J 
8:6;  12:23; 

2  Sam.    7: 18-28; 
12:16; 

I  Kings  8 :  22-54  ; 

1  Kings  17:20-22; 
18:36,37; 

2  Kings  19:15-19. 


2  Sam.  15:7,  8; 
Amos  2:12. 


2 Sam.  2:1;  5:23, 

24; 
2  Sam.  7:4; 
iKingS3:5ff. ; 

22 : 5-28 ; 
2  Kings  16: 15; 
Amos  7:1-9; 

8:iff.; 
Isa.,  chap.  6. 


I  Sam.  28:3-40; 
Isa.  8:19;  19:3; 
Mic.  5: 12. 


22  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

I  Sam.  10:5;  {e)  J/«jzV  <2«^</<^««>/^  were  greatly  developed  in  con- 

a  Sjun/e^'s/i-J,   nection  with  the  feasts  and  the  worship  on  the  high  places, 

lsa.'3o:29;  and  the  regular  services  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  which 

ingsi.4o.         contributed  much  to  the  enrichment  of  the  worship  of 

Jehovah. 

I  Sam.  18:7;  (6)  Songs  were  sung,  sometimes  of  a  secular  character, 

2Sam'.  3:33f^V      as  when  the  women  of  Israel  praised  the  warlike  deeds  of 

a  Sam?;  chap.  82   Saul  and  David,  and  when  David  lamented  the  death  of 

^'  ^^"  Saul  and  Jonathan,  or  that  of  Abner,  or  of  Absalom  ;  at 

other  times  of  a  religious  character,  as  perhaps  when  David 

sang  upon  the  occasion  of  his  deliverance  from  Saul  (but 

see  §19). 

§  18.  The  Prophets'  Attitude  toward  the  actual  prac- 
tice of  the  people,  as  it  was  conducted  by  the  priests, 
was  that  of  undisguised  opposition.     It  is  asserted  many 
times  that  — 
Amos 7:9;  (i)  The  high  places  were   an   occasion  of  sin,  and 

M^c!  i°s;'  aroused  Jehovah's  anger,  and  must  therefore  be  destroyed. 

I  Kings  14:22,23.   r^^^^  ^gj.g  Qj^g  Qf  jj^g  j^Qgj.  effective  channels  of  corrup- 
tion to  the  worshipers  of  Jehovah. 
Hos.  4:6-9;  5:1;  (2)  The  priests  were  altogether  corrupt  and  self-seek- 

mK:!!;  ing;  they  were  the  leaders  in  sin,  going  to  the  farthest 

zeph.  3:4.  extremes  of  debauchery  and  licentiousness,  and  carry- 

ing the  people  down   to  destruction  along  \vith  them- 
selves. 
Amo84:4;  5:22;  (3)  Sacrifice  was  displeasing  to  Jehovah,  since  the 

Hos.4:i3,^m;,       people  were  multiplying  offerings  with  the  thought  that 
this  was  all  that  was  necessary  to  secure  Jehovah's  bless- 
ing; whereas  justice  and  mercy  were  alone  pleasing  to 
him. 
Amos  5:21;  (4)  Feast  days  and  seasons  had  become  occasions  of 

orgiastic  revelry  and  must  be  brought  to  an  end.  These 
were  in  large  measure  borrowed  from  the  Baal-worship, 
and  were  not  yet  wholly  purified. 

(5)  Prayer  was  in  vain,  no  matter  how  fervent  and 
frequent,  since  it  came  from  people  whose  hearts  were 
evil,  and  their  hands  red  with  blood, 
isa.  8:19;  19:3;  (6)  Sorcery    and    witchcraft    were    condemned    and 

regarded  as  unworthy  of  a  people  whose  worship  should 
be  given  to  Jehovah. 


ia:ii 
Mic.  6:6-8 


6:4-6; 


Isa.  i:is; 
Mic.  3:4. 


Mic.  5: 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  23 

§  19.  The  Songs  and  Hymns  of  the  Early  Period  furnish  one  of  the 
most  difficult  questions  within  the  entire  realm  of  biblical  study. 
Modern  scholars,  for  the  most  part,  teach  (i)  that  the  law  is  the  prod- 
uct of  many  centuries  of  history  conducted  by  God  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  produce  that  law,  the  basis  being  found  in  the  work  of  Moses  ; 
and  (2)  that  to  ascribe  the  whole  to  Moses  permits  no  opportunity  for 
gradual  unfolding  of  the  divine  plan.  So  they  teach  (i)  that  most  of 
the  seventy-three  psalms  ascribed  by  tradition  to  David  belong  to  a 
later  age,  when  ideas  of  God  were  higher  and  purer  than  in  David's 
times,  and  when  the  worship  of  God  by  leaders  and  people  had  become 
pure  and  spiritual;  and  (2)  that  to  ascribe  these  psalms,  or  most  of 
them,  to  David  is  to  turn  the  history  of  Israel's  religious  thought  wrong 
side  foremost,  and  to  presuppose  in  David's  times  a  condition  of 
spiritual  life  on  the  part  of  David  and  the  people  which  could  not  have 
existed  until  centuries  later.  This  very  serious  and  important  ques- 
tion may  not  be  taken  up  here.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  in  the 
case  of  the  psalms,  as  in  the  case  of  the  law,  whatever  may  have  been 
the  date  of  origin,  the  people  never  reached  a  position  in  which  they 
could  use  these  psalms  (with  a  few  exceptions)  as  the  expression  of 
their  spiritual  communion  with  God,  until  {a)  the  prophets  had  preached 
long  centuries,  {I))  the  priests  themselves  had  united  to  purge  and 
purify  a  corrupt  worship,  (c)  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  and 
the  land  laid  waste,  {d)  the  inhabitants  were  carried  away  into  a  for- 
eign country,  and  (<?)  the  nation  was  taught,  once  for  all,  what  had 
many  times  been  said,  but  never  actually  believed,  viz.,  that  there  was 
one  God,  and  one  only.  The  psalms  as  a  distinct  part  of  the  priests' 
work  will  receive  further  consideration  in  a  later  chapter. 

See  EwALD,  Commentary  on  the  Psalms,  Vol.  I,  pp.  60-71 ;  Perowne,  Book  of 
Psalms  (second  edition),  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-21  ;  Murray,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Psalms, 
pp.  127-43;  Cheyne,  The  Origin  and  Religious  Contents  of  the  Psalter,  pp.  190-225; 
KiRKPATRiCK,  The  Psalms  (^Cambridge  Bible),  Vol.  I,  pp.  xxxi-xxxviii ;  Driver, 
Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.),  pp.  373-80  ;  Stanley, 
Lectures  on  the  Histo7-y  of  the  Jewish  Church,  Lecture  XXV;  articles  on  "David"  in 
Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  Cheyne's  Encycloptsdia  Biblica. 

The  views  of  some  of  the  most  important  commentators  concerning  the  number 
of  psalms  that  may  be  assigned  to  David  are  : 

(i)  Binney,  all,  or  nearly  all,  assigned  by  tradition. 

(2)  Olshausen,  Lengerke,  Cheyne,  Baethgen,  Duhm,  Wellhausen,  probably  none. 

(3)  Hitzig,  3-19,  except  5,  6,  14. 

(4)  Ewald,  3,  4,  7,  8,  II,  18,  19,  24,  29,  32,  loi,  and  some  fragments. 

(5)  Delitzsch,  3-19,  22-24,  25,  28-30,  32,  34,  36-39,  41,  51,  52,  54,  56-63,  and  some 
others  doubtful. 


24 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Exod.  20:1-17; 
Deut.  5:6-21; 
Exod.  34: 10-28; 
Exod.  20:22— 
23:33. 


(6)  Perowne  grants  that  some  of  those  ascribed  to  David  cannot  have  been 
written  by  him,  but  thinks  that  he  "  personally  contributed  more  than  any  other  indi- 
vidual" to  the  Psalter,  and  was  the  founder  of  a  school  of  sacred  poetry.  Similarly 
also  Kirkpatrick. 

§  20.  The  Laws  of  the  Early  Period  may  be  classified 
under  three  heads:  the  decalogue,  in  two  editions ;  the 
small  book  of  the  covenant;  and  the  larger  book  of  the 
covenant.  Before  considering  these  separately,  a  few 
points  may  be  suggested  concerning  them  as  a  whole  : 

(a)  However  early  or  late  they  may  have  taken  on 
their  present  literary  form,  they  themselves  certainly  go 
back  to  the  period  of  Israel's  earliest  history. 

(3)  They  contain  much  material  which,  of  course,  had 
an  existence  long  before  the  days  of  Moses ;  <?.  g.,  there 
had  been  prohibition  of  murder  and  of  stealing  centuries 
before  Moses. 

(c)  They  reflect,  in  general,  an  early  and,  indeed, 
primitive  stage  of  society;  but  this  stage  is  the  agricul- 
tural, and  therefore  later  than  the  nomadic. 

(a)  They  are  arranged  in  groups  of  ten,  or  of  five. 

(i)    T/ie  decalogue. 

(a)  It  is  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  different  ways ; 
e.  g.,  as  having  been  (i)  spoken  by  God,  (2)  given  through 
angels,  (3)  written  by  the  finger  of  God. 

{b)  It  is  given  different  names  ;  <?.  ^.,  (i)  the  ten  words, 
(2)  the  words  of  the  covenant,  (3)  tables  of  the  cove- 
nant, (4)  covenant,  (5)  testimony,  (6)  two  tables  of  testi- 
mony. 

{c)  It  has  two  forms,  viz.,  that  in  Exod.  20  :  i-i  7,  and 
that  in  Deut.  5  :  6-21  ;  and  although  both  are  said  to  have 
been  engraved  on  stone,  there  are  many  differences  ;  e.  g., 
(i)  the  first  word  of  the  fourth  commandment;  (2)  the 
reason  assigned  for  observance  of  the  fourth  command- 
ment, viz.,  the  creation  and  rest  of  God  in  the  one,  the 
bringing  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt  in  the  other;  (3)  the  two 
additional  clauses  in  the  one  form  of  the  fifth  command- 
ment; (4)  the  different  order  of  the  first  two  clauses  and 
the  addition  of  "  his  field  "    in  the  tenth  commandment. 

{d)  It  has  been  suggested  that  originally  all  the  com- 
mandments consisted,  like  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth, 


Exod.  20:1, 
Exod.  24:  12 
Deut.  5:4; 
Acts  7 
Gal.  3 
Heb.  2 
Exod.  34:28,  29; 
Deut.  4:13; 
Deut.  5:2;  9:  5; 


Exod.  20:8; 

cf.  Deut.  5:12 
Exod.  20: 12; 

cf.  Deut.  5:  If 
Exod.  20: 17; 

cf.  Deut.  5 :  21 


WORSHIP    IN    EARLIER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  2$ 

of  one  or  two  words,  and  that  the  remainder,  e.  g.,  in  the 
second,  third,  and  fifth,  was  added  at  a  later  time. 

(<f)  It  is  divided [i)  into  ten  words,  but  the  division  is 
not  clear,  since  the  Lutheran  and  Romish  churches  com- 
bine the  first  and  second  as  one  and  divide  the  tenth  ; 
(2)  into  two  tables,  but,  here  again,  Jewish  and  Christian 
scholars,  ancient  and  modern,  fail  to  agree,  three  methods 
being  advocated,  according  as  the  two  tables  contained, 
the  first,  three  commandments,  and  the  second,  seven  ; 
the  first,  four,  and  the  second,  six;  the  first,  five,  and  the 
second,  five. 

(2)  The  small  book  of  the  covenant,  \.\\t  laws  of  which  Exod.  34:12-14; 
may  thus  be  grouped  :  {a)  five  on  the  duty  of  worship-  34:21' 18, 22, 
ing  only  Jehovah  ;  ((5)  one  on  image-worship;  (<:)  five  on 

the  offering  of  firstlings;  {d)  five  on  feasts  ;  (^)  four  on 
sacrifices  and  offerings.  These  laws  seem  to  have  been 
written  in  groups  of  five  or  ten,  groups  {b)  and  (e)  hav- 
ing lost  part  of  their  number.  They  are  all  directly 
concerned  with  worship. 

(3)  The  large  book  of  the  covenant,  which  contains  :  (a)   Exod.  20:23-26; 

2I*2-6'2i:  7— 

five  enactments  on  worship;''  (b)  five  on  rights  of  slaves  ;      n;  2i:'i2-i6; 

(c)  five  on  slave  concubines;  (a)  five  on  acts  of  violence.      25;  21 126-22:1 
'  \  /  22:2-6;  22:7- 

Then  follows  one  (a  fragment)  on  the  reviling  of  father  and      17; " :  18-20; 

mother.     After  that  (e)  five  on  personal  injuries  ;  (/)  and      22:28-30; 
/  s  ^  ....  ...  ,  1      22:31;  23:1-3; 

[g)  ten  on  injuries  m  connection  with  property,  slaves,  and      23:4-5;  23:6-9; 

cattle  ;  (h)  five  on  theft  and  damage  to  property  ;  (/)  and 
(7)  ten  on  breaches  of  trust.  Then  follow  three  frag- 
ments on  sexual  crimes,  magic,  sacrifice  to  other  gods. 
After  that  {k)  five  on  the  dealings  with  the  weak  and 
poor;  (/)  five  on  reverence  and  offerings.  Then  follow 
two  on  purity.  After  that  (ni)  five  on  testimony.  Then 
follow  two  on  kindness.  After  that  («)  five  on  justice, 
and  (0)  and  (/)  ten  on  feasts  and  offerings.  In  all  there 
are  sixteen  groups  of  five,  and  eight  fragments  of  groups, 
each  of  which  probably  consisted  of  five. 

A  study  of  the  subjects  given  above,  and  a  reading 
of  the  enactments,  will  show  the  early  character  of  these 
laws  as  contrasted  with  those  given  in  Deuteronomy  and 
Leviticus.     It  is  to  be  noted  (i)  that  the  greater  part  of 

'  In  this  classification  the  laws  relating  to  worship  are  italicized. 


23:10-19. 


26  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

this  code  is  concerned  with  subjects  which  are  not  today 
thought  of  as  religious,  but  that  in  early  times  there  was 
no  distinction  between  "religious"  and  "secular" — 
everything  was  religious;  (2)  that  all  the  enactments 
concerning  religion,  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  word, 
have  to  do  with  its  objective  features  —  feasts,  sacrifices, 
offerings,  ritual,  etc. —  all  of  which  is  included  in  wor- 
ship. It  is  these  enactments  that  lie  back  of  the  teach- 
ing of  the  prophets  down  to  about  650  B.  C. 

In  the  next  study  it  will  appear  that  great  and  fundamental  changes 
are  to  occur  after  650  B.  C.  in  all  the  regulations  which  concern  the 
subject  of  worship  and  its  allied  subjects. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE     HISTORY    OF    WORSHIP     IN     THE     MIDDLE     OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD 

§  2  1.  The  Middle  Old  Testament  Period  (see  §  14  (2))  2  Kings  22:8- 
had  for  its  most  striking  event  tiie  discovery  and  pub- 
lication of  the  book  of  the  law,  known  in  these 
later  times  as  Deuteronomy.  It  is  impossible  here,  as 
in  the  history  of  any  period,  to  draw  sharp  lines  of 
separation. 

(i)  Just  when  this  middle  period  began  cannot 
be  fixed  definitely.  But  this  much  is  clear,  that  the 
work  of  the  prophets  {cf.  §  18)  in  the  years  preced- 
ing  621    B.   C.    («)    pointed    out    the   evils  which   had   Amos 5:24;  9:7; 

V     /     r  Hos.8:5,6,i4; 

crept    into  the  worship  of    the    people;     {b)    presented      14:1-4; 
such  conceptions   of   God's  justice,  love,  holiness,  and   Isa.'i:"i2-i7; 

J  '  '  '  6: 1-5;  etc. 

unity  as  would  furnish  a  basis  for  higher  and  more  spir- 
itual forms  of  worship  than  those  which  were  already 
in  existence  ;  and  this  {c)  prepared  the  way  for  some- 
thing which,  up  to ,  this  time,  the  people  could  not 
appreciate. 

(2)  Just  when  this  middle  period  ended  is  likewise 
indefinite,  but  it  is  evident  that  after  and.  out  of  this 
period  there  came  a  still  higher  form  of  worship,  des- 
tined in  God's  providence  {a)  to  endure  through  a  period 
of  great  political  and  religious  .upheaval,  and  (^)  to 
serve  as  the  basis  for  a  worship  still  higher  in  its  ideals 
and  in  its  spiritual  character. 

§  22.  Three  Distinct  Stages  May  be  Traced  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  middle  or  Deuteronomic  period.  These  may 
be  classified  as  : 

(i)   The pre-exilic  stage,  which  ended  with  the  removal   2 Kings 25 : 8-21. 
of  the  people  from  their  land  and  with  the  destruction 
of  the  temple  around  v^rhich  the  whole  system  of  worship 
centered. 

(2)  The  exilic  stage,  during  which  the  people  were  in 
Babylon,  away  from  all  the  familiar  scenes  of  worship 

27 


28  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

and   under  the   influence   of    an   entirely   new  religious 

environment. 
Ezra,  chap.  I ;  (3)    The  post-exilic  stage,  beginning   with   the   return 

from  exile,  including  the  building  of  the  second  temple, 

and   ending    approximately  with   the  visit    of    Ezra   to 

Jerusalem. 

§  23.  The  Deliverance  of  Jerusalem  in  Hezekiah's  Day 

(701  B.  C.)  had  exerted  a  marked  influence  on  worship. 

To  Hezekiah  is  ascribed  an  important  work  as  reformer, 
2  Kings  18:4;        in  that  he  (i)  removed  the  high  places, (2)  broke  the  pillars, 

(3)  cut  down  the  Asherim,  (4)  broke  in  pieces  the  brazen 

serpent  that  Moses  had  made,  which,  in  his  day,  was  wor- 
Amos  7: 9;  shiped  as  a  representation  of  God  in  Jerusalem.     In  so  far 

HOS.   10:1,2;  ^  ^  ^  ,.      ,  ,        TT  ,    •      , 

isa.  30:22;  31:7.  as  these  things  were  accomplished,  Hezekiah  was  acting 
in  accordance  with  the  commands  of  the  prophets  (see 
§  18).  But  it  seems  that  the  work  was  not  as  thorough- 
going as  it  might  have   been,  since  in  Josiah's  times, 

2 Kings 23: 13.  seventy  or  eighty  years  later,  the  high  places  erected  by 
Solomon  near  Jerusalem  were  still  in  existence.  Heze- 
kiah's reformation,  however  transient,  was  closely  con- 
nected with  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem  from  Sennach- 
erib and  the  Assyrian  army  in  701  B.  C.     This  invasion 

2  Kings  18: 13;  had  two  results  :  (i)  The  outlying  villages  with  their  high 
places  were  destroyed  and  dishonored,  and  the  country 
people  came  to  see  that  the  worship  as  practiced  in  the 

2  Kings  19:20-37.  high  places  was  of  no  avail  in  times  of  great  distress.  (2) 
Jerusalem,  the  temple,  and  the  God  whose  worship  was 
conducted  in  the  temple  (a  worship  beyond  question 
comparatively  pure)  were  delivered,  and  thereby  greatly 
honored,   for    the  whole    nation    had    therein    a    posi- 

Deut.  12 : 2-19.  tive  experience  of  Jehovah's  power.  This  paved  the 
way  for  the  exaltation  of  the  temple-worship  and  the 
destruction  of  the  worship  in  the  high  places,  changes 
which  together  form  the  great  characteristic  of  the  mid- 
dle period. 

See  W.  R.  Smith,  The  Prophets  of  Israel  (2d  ed.),  pp.  353-64; 
CoRNiLL,  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  67  f.;  Driver,  Isaiah,  His  life 
and  Times,  pp.  66-83  ;  the  article  "  Hezekiah  "  in  Hastings'  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible,  Vol.  II,  p.  377 ;  and  the  corresponding  article 
(§  l)  in  Encyclopcedia  Biblica,  Vol.  II. 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  29 

§  24.    Manasseh's  Reign  Brought  a  Great  Reaction.— 
This  came  about  because  (i)  the  prophetic  party  (that  is, 
the   party  of  reformers)  pushed    forward  more  rapidly 
than  the  people  could  follow,  e.  g.,  (a)  in  destroying  the 
objects  and  places  of  worship  held  in  veneration  by  the 
people   for  many  centuries,  and  (^)  in   holding  up  con-    2Kingsi8:4; 
ceptions  of  God  and  of  life  which  the  people  were  still  too   ^    i^gsiQ'Q- 
ignorant  and  debased  to  appreciate;  (2)  the  people  were 
disappointed   in  the  hope,  raised  by  the  prophets,  that 
with  Jerusalem's  deliverance  Assyria  would  perish,  when, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  Assyria  still  remained  powerful,  sub-    zChion.  33:11, 
duing   Egypt  and  taking  tribute  from   Judah  ;  (3)   the 
people  believed  that  this  failure  of  their  desires  and  the    c/.  jer.  44 :  15-19. 
consequent  adversity  had  their  origin  in  the  proposed 
reforms  of  the  prophets,  and   that   these  very  reforms 
(<?.  g.,  the  breaking  down  of  the  high  places)  were   dis- 
pleasing to  Jehovah. 

The  reaction  exhibited  itself  in  (i)  the  murder  of  the   2Kings 21:16; 

Jer.  2 :  30. 

prophets  and  their  partisans;  (2) setting  up  again  the  idols,  2  Kings 21 : 3-5. 
and  the  Asherim;   (3)  giving  permission  to  enchanters  2Kings2i:6. 
and  augurs  and  witches  and   wizards  to  practice  their 

/    \  -1  •/-  /    X    •  ^       ■  2  Kings  21: 6; 

arts:  (4)  encouraging  human  sacrifice;  (s)  mtroducms:      23:10; 

,   .  ,         ,  ,  ^-^^  ^     Mlc.  6:6,  7. 

the  worship  of  other  gods  even  within  the  temple  itself, 

€.  g.,  the  host  of  heaven  —  the  chariots  of  the  sun  being  *  23°rf,  12.' ^'^' 

placed  within  the  temple. 

§  25.  The  Discovery  of  the  Deuteronomic  Law  followed 
a  generation  or  so  of  prophetic  silence.  This  silence 
was  occasioned  by  persecution,  and  had  for  its  result 
the  production  of  a  work  which,  in  itself,  summed  up 
prophecy  and  furnished  the  text-book  of  worship  for  a 
long  time  to  come.  While  the  mouth  of  the  prophet 
was  closed,  his  pen  worked.  In  this  work  the  lessons  Deut.  4:15-19; 
of  Manasseh's  reaction  were  taken  into  account ;  for  the  Deut."  17: 14-20'. 
new  order  of  worship,  while  revolutionary  in  some 
aspects,  was,  after  all,  an  evolution  from  that  which  pre- 
ceded it.    The  new  cult  went  as  far  as  possible  in  retain-    Deut.  15:19; 

1 J  J       1  1  .         .1  •  J-  ^1         Deut.  16:16. 

ing  old  usages  and  old  ceremonies,  thus  avoiding  the 
difficulties  occurring  in  connection  with  the  earlier 
attempts  at  reformation.  Many  other  things  were 
learned  anew  from  the  experience  of  the  reaction,  e.g., 


30  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Deut.  ia:2-4.  the  demoralizing  influence  of  the  high  places,  and  the 
necessity  of  purging  and  purifying  the  ritual.  These 
were  incorporated  in  the  written  document. 

See  CH-£.\n-E.,  Jeremiah,  His  Life  and  Times,  pp.  62-4  ;  CORNILL, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  80-82 ;  Driver,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary 
on  Deuteronomy,  pp.  xlix-lxii. 

No  opportunity,  however,  presented  itself  under 
Manasseh  or  Amon  for  the  promulgation  of  this  book. 
It  was  put  away  in  the  temple.  In  Josiah's  reign,  (i) 
when  the  hearts  of  the  people  were  being  turned  to 
Jehovah  by  the  terror  aroused  in  connection  with  the 
jer.i:i,2;  Scythian   invasion;  (2)  when  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah 

zeph.  1:1.  ^gj.g  preaching  with  all  the  vigor  of  the  older  prophets  ; 

2  Kings  22: 1,2.      (3)  when  Josiah,  ayoung  man,  was  turning  his  face  in  the 
Kings  22:3-8.      direction  of  the  true  God  ;  (4)  when  the  temple  was  being 
cleansed  and  repaired,  in  order  that  Jehovah  might  be 
thereby  honored  — M^«  this  book,  the  book  of  Deuter- 
onomy, was  discovered,  brought  to  the  king,  read  to  him, 
and  read  again  to  the  people.     The  immediate  circum- 
stances of  this  discovery  are  described  in  some  detail ;  e.  g.  : 
2  Kings 22: 8-10.     (i)  The  book  was  found  by  Hilkiah,  the  high-priest,  and 
given  by  him  to  Shaphan,  the  scribe,  who  read  it,  took  it 
2  Kings  22:11-14.   to  King  Josiah,  and  read  it  to  him.     (2)  The  king  was 
greatly  grieved  as  he  listened  and  realized  how  far  short 
of  the  demands  of  this  book  the  religious  life  of  Israel 
had  fallen.     He  at  once  sent  a  delegation  of  leading  men 
to  Huldah,  a  prophetess,  to  inquire  Jehovah's  will  con- 
2 Kings  22: 15-20.   cerning   the   book.     (3)    She  declared    that   the   judg- 
ments it  contained  would    fall  upon   Israel    because  of 
their  desertion  of  Jehovah  and  their  worship  of  other 
gods,  but  that  Josiah  would  reign  in   peace  because  of 
2Kings23:i-3.      his    faithfulness   to  Jehovah.      (4)   Upon   hearing  this, 
Josiah  called  a  great  meeting  of  all  the  people,  read  the 
newly  found  book  to  them,  and  caused  them  to  join  him 
in   a  covenant  with   Jehovah   to  conform  to  Jehovah's 
requirements  as  laid  down  therein.     Thereupon  the  work 
of  reform  was  begun  throughout  the  land. 

§  26.  The  Results  of  the  Finding  of  Deuteronomy  are 
very  fully  given  us  in  the  sacred  narrative.  These  results 
constituted  what  is  called  Josiah's.  reformation,  and 
included  : 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  3I 

(i)  The   destruction   of  the   high  places  and  altars  1  Kings  23 : 8,  la, 

throughout  the  land.  13,15,19. 

(2)  The  breaking  down  of  th.Q  pillars  and  Asherim.  2  Kings  23:6, 14. 

(3)  The  removal  of  the  teraphim  and  other  idols.  2  Kings  23: 24. 

(4)  The  destruction  of  the  horses  and  chariots  of  the  2  Kings  23:11. 
sun. 

(5)  The  deposition  and  destruction  of  idolatrous  2  Kings  23:5,8,9, 
priests  and  of  the  priests  of  the  high  places. 

(6)  T\\.^zho\\\AOX\.  oi  humatt  sacrifice.  2  Kings  23;  10. 

(7)  The  observance  of  the  Feast  of  the  Passover.  2  Kings  23:21-23. 

(8)  The  prohibition  of  sorcerers  and  wizards.  2  Kings  23:24. 

(9)  The  purification   of  worship  involved  in    doing  2  Kings  23: 7. 
away  with  the  Sodomites. 

Two  things  may  be  said  :  (a)  There  is  nothing  essen- 
tial commanded  in  Deuteronomy  which  Josiah  did  not 
try  to  do ;  (<5)  every  single  act  of  the  reformation  will  be 
found  commanded  in  Deuteronomy. 

§  27.  The  Teaching  of  Deuteronomy  on  the  more 
important  points  of  worship  may  be  briefly  summarized 
as  follows  : ' 

(i)  Object  of  7Vorship. — Jehovah  only  is  to  be  wor-  Deut.  6:4;  10:20; 
shiped ;  all  idols  and  other  objects  of  worship  must  be  i6:"2i".';7?5%5' 
destroyed. 

(2)  Place  of  worship. —  Worship  is  permitted  only  at  Deut.  12:2-7,  11, 
one  central  sanctuary,  viz.,  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.    All 

local  shrines  are  to  be  destroyed. 

(3)  Priests. —  These  now  become  a  distinct  class,  the   Deut.  10:8,9. 
tribe   of   Levi   being  set  apart   to  perform  the   priestly 
function.      There    are,    of   course,    more    Levites    than 

are    needed    for  priests ;    these   are  to  be  teachers  and 

judges.     The  duties  of  the  Levites  at  the  local  sanctua-   Deut.  18:1-8. 

ries  being  abolished,  many  of  them  are  naturally  without 

means  of  support,  and  special  provision  has  to  be  made 

for  them  in  the  law. 

{4)  Sacrifice. — The  continuance  of  sacrifice  is  taken   Deut.  12:13!; 
for  granted,  but  every  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered  at  the 
central  sanctuary.     All  firstlings  are,  as  before,  especially 
designated  as  sacrifices  to  Jehovah. 

'  The  examination  of  this  book  as  a  code  of  laws  will  be  taken  up  later  in  this 
course  of  study. 


32 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Deut.  5 :  13-15. 
Deut  15: 1-18. 


Jer.  34:1-20. 
Deut.  16 : 1-15. 


Deut.  14:  3-ai. 


Deut.  23:21-23. 

Deut.  14:  28  f.; 

26: 12. 
Deut.  18:  10-12; 

23:  i7f. ;  14: 1. 

Deut.  9:20,  26-29. 


Deut.  6:4;  4 :  28 ; 
10:17. 


Deut.  4 :  32-36 ; 
<-/.  Exod.  19:  6. 


Deut.  12 :  2-7. 


(5)  Days  and  seasons. —  Set  times  of  worship  are 
appointed  to  be  observed  :  {a)  The  sabbath  is  preserved 
unchanged.  (J))  The  sabbatical  year  becomes  established, 
and  is  extended  to  the  cancellation  of  all  debts  owed  by 
Hebrews  to  their  fellow-countrymen  and  to  the  release 
of  all  Hebrew  slaves.  There  was  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  enforce  this  provision  with  reference  to  slaves  in  the 
reign  of  Zedekiah.  {c)  Three  annual /mj-/j  are  fixed,  as 
before,  in  connection  with  the  agricultural  seasons ;  but, 
like  all  other  acts  of  worship,  they  are  to  be  celebrated  at 
Jerusalem.  New  elements  appear  in  the  fixing  of  the 
duration  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  at  seven  days,  and 
of  Pentecost  at  one  day,  and  in  the  connection  of  the 
Passover  with  the  exodus  from  Egypt.  No  reference  is 
made  lo  feasts  of  the  moon. 

(6)  Other  acts  of  worship. —  (^2)  A  list  of  clean  and 
unclean  animals  is  given  ;  this  classification  probably 
had  a  religious  basis ;  {f)  faithfulness  in  the  performance 
of  vows  is  enjoined  ;  {c)  a  triennial  tithe  is  imposed  which  is 
to  be  given  to  the  Levite,  the  widow,  and  the  poor;  {cf) 
perverted  acts  of  worship,  such  as  human  sacrifice,  sorcery, 
etc.,  are  prohibited;  {e)  prayers  of  Moses  are  recorded. 

See  Cheyne,  op.  cit.,  pp.  64-7  ;  Driver,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical 
Commentary  on  Deuteronomy,  pp.  xix-xxxiv  ;  article  "  Deuteronomy" 
(§§  27-32)  in  Encyclopcedia  Biblica,  Vol.  I ;  and  corresponding  article 
(§  iv)  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I. 

§  28.  The  Full  Significance  of  the  Deuteronomic  Prin- 
ciples, the  Spirit  with  which  These  are  Presented,  and  the 
Great  Changes  Wrought  by  Their  Adoption  are  difificult  to 
appreciate.     vSome  of  these  points  may  be  noted  : 

(i)  The  fundamental  idea  is  that  there  is  but  one 
god  worthy  to  be  called  God;  other  gods  are  wood 
and  stone. 

(2)  With  such  a  God  dealing  directly  with  the  nation, 
Israel's  life  must  be  high  and  holy;  for  otherwise  it  will 
be  unworthy. 

(3)  There  shall  be  only  one  place  of  worship,  and 
that  the  temple  in  Jerusalem;  in  this  way  the  licentious 
nature-worship  can  be  done  away  with. 

(4)  The  conduct  of  worship  must  be  guarded,  and 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  33 

consequently  it  is  placed  under  the  control  of  a  special 
tribe,  the  Levites. 

(5)  The  method  of  presentation  is  a  wonderful   one, 

being  twofold,  prophetic  and  priestly;  viz.,  {a)  exhorta-  Deut. 4:1  13; 
tions  of  the  most  "sweetly  impressive"  character,  full  of  •*'^5'®  *^- 
spiritual  strength ;  (/^)  laws,  many  of  them  dating  from  Deut.  5:6-21. 
the  earliest  times,  others  from  a  later  period  ;  some  of  Deut.,  chaps, 
them  apparently  arbitrary  in  their  tone,  others  full  of 
the  reasons  which  should  lead  to  their  observance. 

(6)  The  spirit  throughout  is  the  spirit  of  love,  and  is  Deut.  7:  7-10; 
akin  to  that  exhibited  in    the  book  of  Hosea.     "  The 

primal  love  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  fills  the  foreground  of 
each  writer's  discourse,  and  all  human  relationships  within 
the  Israelitish  community  are  rooted  in  this.'"'     But  this   Ceut.  6:17-19; 

-'  Deut.  10:18. 

love  is  no  sentimental  love;  Israel's  God  is  a  God  of 
justice  as  well  as  of  love. 

(7)  The     restriction    of    worship    to    ofie    place    is   Deut.  14:22-27. 
"  tantamount  to  a  suppression  of  religion  in  the  whole 

country  outside  of  Jerusalem."  ^  How  can  the  country 
people  now  consult  Jehovah?  The  neighboring  altar  Deut.  19: 1-13- 
to  which  the  fugitive  might  flee  and  be  safe  is  done  away 
with,  and  distant  cities  of  refuge  are  only  a  partial  sub- 
stitute; while  the  function  of  the  altar  as  a  place  to 
which  the  people  might  come  and  receive  judgment  is 
given  to  the  gates  of  the  cities  and  to  the  temple  at  Jeru-  Deut.  16: 18; 
salem.  Israel  in  the  country  must  now  live  without  God, 
with  whom  before  he  had  lived  so  closely. 

(8)  The  feasts  are  beginning  to  be  denaturalized  ;  that 
is,  they  are  losing  their  agricultural  significance,  and  are 
to  be  more  and  more  closely  associated  with  historical 
events  —  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  with  the  flight 
from  Egypt;  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  with  the  giving  of  the  law 
on  Sinai ;  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  with  the  journey  in 
the  desert.  Religion  is  a  matter  of  fixed  days  and  sea- 
sons, rather  than  an  everyday  affair. 

(9)  The  setting  apart  of  priests,  and  the  placing  of 

See  article  "Feasts  "  (§§9,  10)  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  11; 
Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  91  f-;  COR- 
NILL,  op.  cit.,  p.  86. 

'  Cheyne,  op.  cit.,  p.  66.  3  CORNILI,  op.  cit.,  p.  85. 


34  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

all  worship  in  their  hands,  thus  compelling  the  people 

to  make  use  of  them,  while  beforetime  the  use  of  a  priest 

was  voluntary,  draws  the  line  sharply  between  laity  and 

Deut.  18:3;  21:5;   clergy.     The  priest  changes  his  function  ;  for  he  is  now 

Deut.^'7': 9- 12 ;       preeminently  a  sacrificer,  while  before  he  consulted  the 


20:2-4;  24:8. 


oracle  and  announced  the  divine  wil 


Deut.  4:40;  6:i- 

9,24,25;  7:11; 
8:1,6, 11; 


Deut.  14:24!.;  (10)    The   significance    of    the    sacrifice    is    greatly 

changed.  Sacrifice  being  lawful  only  at  the  one  central 
sanctuary,  it  was  offered  for  the  most  part  only  in  con- 
nection with  the  three  great  yearly  festivals  when  all 
Israelites  were  required  to  be  at  Jerusalem.  The  popular, 
joyous  aspect  of  it  as  a  banquet  and  as  an  offering  of 
joy  and  thanksgiving,  made  frequently  and  in  connection 
with  any  suitable  occasion,  now  begins  to  disappear,  and 
a  more  and  more  solemn  and  expiatory  character  is  given 
to  all  sacrifice. 

(11)  What  is  it  henceforth  to  be  religious?  To  do 
the  thing  laid  down  in  a  book.  The  day  that  saw  Deut- 
eronomy accepted,  its  ritual  of  worship  adopted,  and  its 
teaching  concerning  priest  and  sacrifice  recognized — that 
day  saw  the  beginning  of  the  death  of  prophecy.  It  was, 
of  course,  the  prophets'  own  work;  but  they  had  estab- 
lished the  agency  by  which,  later,  they  themselves  would 
be  strangled ;  because  from  this  time  forward  the  voice 
of  ihe.  prophet  is  unnecessary. 

See  CoRNiLL,  op.  cit.,  p.  89. 

(12)  The  adoption  of  Deuteronomy  signified  the 
separation  of  church  and  state.  This  was  necessary,  for 
the  state  is  soon  to  die — within  thirty-five  years.  This 
separation  made  it  possible  for  the  church  to  live,  after 
the  death  of  the  state. 

See  CoRNiLL,  op.  cil.,  p.  88. 

(13)  The  act  of  Josiah  and  his  people  in  accepting 
Deuteronomy  was  the  first  step  toward  the  canonization 
of  Holy  Scripture  —  the  first  step  in  a  long  line  of  similar 
events  which  have  given  us  the  Bible  with  our  modern 
conceptions  of  inspiration. 

(14)  ///  a  word,  worship,  whether  viewed  narrowly  or 
broadly,  is  henceforth  almost  a.  ntvf  thing.  The  Israelitish 
religion  seems  to  have  been  revolutionized.     Of  course, 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  35 

a  closer  study  shows  that  all  this  was  evolution,  not 
revolution ;  the  prophets  had  prepared  the  way;  the 
prophets  and  priests  worked  together.  A  priest  found 
the  book  and  gave  it  to  the  king,  and  the  priests 
received  through  this  book  privileges  they  had  never 
before  enjoyed. 

See  BUDDE,  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile,  pp.  171-9- 

§  29.  A  Second  Reaction  followed  after  thirteen  years 
of  successful  work  on  the  part  of  Jeremiah  and  Josiah. 

(i)  Jeremiah  at  the  beginning  of  the  reformation  had   Jer.  11:1-6,18-23. 
preached  the  contents  of  this  book  throughout  the  vil- 
lages of  Judah,  sometimes  incurring  the  opposition  and 
persecution  of  his  friends. 

(2)  The  times  that  followed  for  thirteen  years  were 
quiet  and  prosperous;  the  king  and  the  people  lived 
before  God  and  received  his  blessing. 

(3)  Perhaps  during  this  time  the  work  of  the  sages   c/.  Prov.,  chaps, 
began  to  flourish,  jer.  18:18. 

(4)  Assyria  was  losing   ground;    Necho  of  Egypt  ^  ^^"^f.  ssralW 
(608  B.  C.)  began  to  encroach  upon  the  Assyrian  terri- 
tory.    Josiah  met  him  at  the  battle  of  Megiddo  and  was 

slain.     The   reformation    failed.     The   people    believed 

the  king's  death  was  a  divine  punishment  for  changing 

the  forms  of  worship   in  their  religion.     The  opposing  2  Kings  23:36!.; 

party  gained  control,  and  then   followed  the  series   of 

events  which  resulted,  in  a  few  years,  in  the  downfall  of 

the  kingdom. 

§  30.  The  Significance  of  the  Babylonian  Exile  in  its 
Relationship  to  Worship  cannot  easily  be  overestimated. 
Its  effect  upon  some  of  the  principal  ideas  and  institu- 
tions may  be  noted  here  : 

(i)    Object  of  worship. — The  removal   to    Babylonia  2  Kings  25: 13-17 
involved  the  leaving  behind  of  all  idolatrous  objects  of 
worship,  or  their  confiscation  or  destruction  by  the  con- 
queror.     The.  leaders  of   Israel's   religious    life   looked   E|^.^-_^^  "-'^ ^ 
upon   idolatry  as  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  exile. 
The   removal   from   the  land   with   which   Jehovah   had 
always  been  associated  to  a  land  which  was  the  dominion 
of  another  god  also  involved  either  an  acknowledgment   ^^^^ .''g.-jo "^^ i^.y 
of  the  power  of  this  foreign  god,  or  else  the  maintenance      46:5-7. 


36  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

of  a  belief  in  Jehovah's  supremacy  and  universality.  That 
this  higher  conception  of  Jehovah  prevailed  is  clear  from 
the  fact  that  we  hear  nothing  of  idolatry  after  the  return 
from  the  exile,  and  especially  from  the  teachings  of  Isa., 
chaps.  40-66. 

(2)  Place  of  worship. — The  temple  being  destroyed, 
and  all  the  familiar  scenes  of  worship  being  left  behind, 
together  with   all   material  and    external    reminders   of 

Isa.  45:18-22;        Jehovah's  presence,  the  worshipers  were  necessarily  led 

isa.  51:12, 13.  to  a  more  spiritual  conception  of  God.  Moreover, 
absence  from  the  temple  developed  an  ability  to  do  with- 
out the  temple  services  which  was  in  part  responsible  for 
the  origin  of  synagogues. 

Ezek  ,  chaps.  40-  (3)  The  occupation  of  the  priests  was  gone,  in  so  far 

as  it  was  dependent  upon  the  temple.  The  book  of 
Ezekiel  furnishes  an  illustration  of  one  phase  of  priestly 

Isa.  61:6.  activity  during  these  days.     The  thought  of  Israel  as  a 

nation  of  priests  appears. 

Isa.  43 :  22-24 ;      /        (4)  Sacrifice  could  no  longer  be  offered,  but  it  did  not 
/  lose  any  of  its  importance  in  the  thought  of  the  people. 

Isa.  56:2, 4.  5;  (5)   Times  and  seasons. — {a)   The  sabbath,  being  an 

58 :  13 ;  65 :  23.         .         .        .  ...  .      ,  ,  .    ,  ,  ,  t       . , , 

mstitution  which  was  independent  of  the  temple,  could  still 
be  kept,  and  it  received  much  emphasis  during  and  after 
this  period.  Sabbaths  were  also  observed  by  the  Baby- 
lonians. {B)  Feasts,  which  had  always  been  occasions  of 
joy,  could  no  longer  be  observed  legally,  and  emphasis 

Isa.  58:3-5.  was  laid  on  {c)  fasts,  which  were  of  an  exactly  opposite 

character  and  were  not  dependent  upon  the  temple. 

(6)  Other  acts  of  worship. — {a)  In  the  absence  of  all 
the  regular  public  means  of  worship,  those  who  wor- 
shiped "in  spirit  and  in  truth"  naturally  had  frequent 

Isa.  63 :  15— 64 :  12 ;   recourse  to  prayer.     The  future  temple  is  thought  of  as 

Isa.  52: 1,  II.  a  house  of  prayer,     (b)  The  recognition  of  the  captivity 

as  a  punishment  for  sin  led  to  an  exalted  conception  of 
Jehovah's  holiness  and  to  the  laying  of  great  emphasis 

Isa  65  I  7, 11;  upon  ceremonial  cleanness,  (c)  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  many  became  apostates  from  the  Jehovah-worship 
and  took  up  the  worship  of  their  conquerors. 

c/.  Ezek.  10: 9-22.  (7)    The  itifluence  of  the  Babylonian  worship  on  Israel's 

ritual  is  evident  in  succeeding  ritualistic  legislation,  as 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  37 

also  in  some  of  Ezekiel's  imagery.  Jehovah  through  the 
exile  again  brought  Israel  into  contact  with  a  great 
religion,  as  he  had  already  done  in  the  case  of  Baalism. 
Just  as  Israel  had  learned  some  truths  through  Baalism, 
and  to  some  extent  had  enriched  the  cultus  of  Jehovah 
thereby,  so  was  she  to  do  through  the  agency  of  Baby- 
lon's worship. 

§31.  The  Priest-Prophet  of  the  Captivity,  Ezekiel, 
occupied  an  important  place  in  the  further  development 
of  the  ritual  of  worship.  His  place  may  only  be 
touched  upon  here.  With  prophetic  idealism,  legalist 
though  he  was,  his  vision  pictured  a  future  temple,  a 
future  service,  and  a  future  priesthood,  as  follows  : 

[a)  The  temple. — While  the  temple  of  Solomon  had 
been  virtually  a  part  of  the  royal  palace,  the  new  temple 
is  to  be  wholly  separate  from  the  royal  dwellings  and 
from  all  other  ordinary  habitations  ;  for  it  is  the  earthly 
habitation  of  the  most  holy  God,  who  had  abandoned  Ezek. 45:1-8. 
the  former  city  and  temple  because  of  their  profanation  by 
sin  and  uncleanness.  To  prevent  any  such  profanation 
of  Jehovah  in  future 

the  sacred  "oblation,"  the  domain  of  the  priests,  Levites,  Ezek.  48 ; 7-23. 
prince,  and  city,  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  restored  tribes, 
Judah  on  one  side  of  it  and  Benjamin  on  the  other.  In  the 
midst  of  this  oblation  is  the  portion  of  the  priests,  that  of  the 
Levites  lying  on  one  side,  and  that  of  the  city  on  the  other. 
In  the  middle  of  the  priests'  portion  stands  the  temple.  This 
is  a  great  complex  of  buildings,  around  which  on  all  sides  lies 
a  free  space  or  suburbs.  Then  comes  a  great  wall  surround- 
ing the  whole  buildings,  forming  a  square  of  five  hundred 
cubits.     Within  this  wall  is  an  outer  court,  and  within   this 

an  inner  court In  this  inner  court  stands  the  altar, 

and  to  the  back  of  it  the  temple  house.  The  house  has  also 
a  graduated  series  of  compartments  increasing  in  sanctity 
inwards  —  an  outer  apartment  or  porch,  an  inner  or  holy 
place,  and  an  innermost,  where  the  presence  of  Jehovah 
abides."* 

{b)    The  priests. — The  sons  of  Zadok  only  are  to  be   Ezek.  44 : 4-16. 
priests  ;  all  other  Levites  are  to  be  subordinate  ministers, 
performing    the    more    menial    tasks   of   the  sanctuary. 

4  Davidson,  The  Book  of  Zfzf^zV/ (Cambridge  Bible),  p.  290. 


38  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Foreigners  are  not  to  be  permitted  to  enter  the  temple, 
as  heretofore,  to  perform  any  tasks.  The  distinction 
between  clergy  and  laity  is  clearly  marked ;  none  of  the 
latter  —  not  even  the  prince  —  may  enter  the  inner  court 
Ezek.  44:17-28.  of  the  temple.  The  sanctity  of  the  priests  as  the  ones 
ministering  in  the  presence  of  Jehovah  is  strongly  empha- 
sized and  guarded  in  many  ways,  such  as  the  requirement 
that  they  wear  special  garments  while  discharging  their 
Ezek.  44 :  29, 30.  sacred  functions.  They  live  upon  their  share  of  the  sac- 
rifices of  the  people. 

(c)  Sacrifice  occupies  an  important  place  in  the  ritual. 

Ezek. 43:18-26;      The  various   kinds   mentioned  are  :  (i)   ^h.^  sin-offering, 

Ezek.  43:27;  which   is    much   emphasized;  (2)   burnt-offerings,   which 

Ezek. 42:13.  are  numerous;    (3)  the  trespass-offering,    which    was    a 

Ezek. 46:13-15.      variety  of  the  sin-offering;  {a^  XSxo.  meal-offering;  {^  l\\^ 

Ezek.  46 :  19-24.      peace -offering ;  (6)  the  contimtai  burnt- offering  xnSide.  evQry 

morning.     Special  places  are  provided  for  the  cooking 

of  the  offerings  that  are  to  be  eaten  by  priests  and  people. 

Ezek.  44:24.  {d)   Times  and  seasons. —  The  old  times  are  all  to  be 

Ezek. 45:17—        observed,  viz.,  the  sabbath,  the  new  moons,  and  the  three 

^  ■"■  feasts,  the  Passover  receiving  special  notice. 

§32.  The  Priestly  Character  of  the  Prophetic  Work  of 
These  Times  appears  most  strongly.  This  means  that  the 
priest-work  was  gaining  ground,  while  the  prophetic  work 
waslosingground.  Butitwill  benoted  that(a)anewsitua- 
tion  was  coming  in  which  the  priest-work  would  be  more 
greatly  needed  ;  and  [b)  the  priest-work  had  taken  into 
itself  all  that  had  been  contributed  by  the  prophets.  It 
is  true,  therefore,  that  not  the  priest-work  pure  and 
simple,  but  the  priest-work  as  strengthened  by,  and  as 
containing,  the  truth  proclaimed  through  prophets,  was 
the  power  that  now  held  the  forefront. 
This  priestly  element  is  seen  — 
jer.  1:1.  (i)  In  the  priestly  birth  and  character  of  the  prophet 

Jeremiah,   whose    home    was    at  Anathoth,   one    of   the 
headquarters  of  the  priests. 
Deut.,  chaps.  12-  (2)  In  the  priestly  character  of  a  large  portion  of  the 

book  of  Deuteronomy. 
Deut.  18:5;  (3)   In  the  position  now  occupied  by  the  priests  as 

compared  with  their  former  position. 


cf.  Judg.  17 :  7-13- 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  39 

(4)  In  the  priestly  character  and  service  of  Ezekiel.      Ezek.i  :3;  chaps 

§33.  The  Return  of  the  People  from  the  Babylo-  Ezra  2: 64! 
nian  Exile  introduced  an  entirely  new  situation.  It  was 
one,  however,  in  which  for  eighty  years  (538-458  B.  C.) 
the  book  of  Deuteronomy  and  its  regulations  were 
supreme.  It  was  a  time  of  discouragement ;  the  high 
hopes  of  the  returning  exiles  were  dashed  to  the  ground 
in  the  presence  of  desolated  homes,  wasted  lands,  fail- 
ure of  crops,  loss  of  political  independence,  and  the  c/.  Hag.  2:15-19. 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  struggle  against  these 
adverse  conditions  seems  to  have  absorbed  most  of  their 
energies  during  the  first  years  after  the  return,  the  re- 
quirements of  worship  being  largely  neglected.  We 
may  note  the  attitude  toward  some  of  the  principal 
institutions. 

(a)   The  temple.  —  Partly  because  of  opposition  on  the   Ezra 5: 2; 
part  of  certain  enemies,  but  chiefly  on   account  of  dis-   Ezra 6 -is-' 
couragement  and    indifference,   the   foundation   of    the 
temple  was  not  laid  until  December,  520  B.  C,  eighteen 
years  after  the  return,  and  the  work  was  not  finished 
until  516  B.  C.     Because  of  the  poverty  of  the  people.   Hag. 2:3; 
this  new  temple  fell  far  short  of  the  splendor  of  the  old. 
The  religious  leaders  were  convinced  that  prosperity  and   Ezra  5: 1,2. 
glory  could  come  to  Israel  only  if  the  temple  were  first 
restored.     This  shows  how  large  a  place  it  had  come  to   Hag.  1:9, 10. 
occupy  in  religious  thought  and  practice. 

(<5)   The  priest  \va.s  gaining  more  and  more  importance 
in  the  life  and  worship  of  the  people.     Of  the  returning  Ezra 2: 36-39. 
exiles  a  large  proportion  consisted  of  priests  and  other 
temple  servants.     There   seems   to   have  been  develop- 
ing  the  distinction   between  priests  and   Levites  which   Ezra 6: 18, 20. 
was    to   become   fixed    later.     That  the  distinction  was 
not  yet  clearly  made  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  Ezra 8: 20;  10:5; 
two  titles  appear  to  be  synonymous  in  some  passages,      ^-s-^- 
just    as    they    are    in    Deuteronomy.     One    priest    had 
already  achieved  prominence  as  the  leader  of  his  breth-   zech.  3:1-9; 
ren,  and  he  appeared  side  by  side  with  the  prince  in  all   Hag."~iVi2; 
important  concerns,  and   was   superior  to   him  in  reli-      ^■^'^■ 
gious  affairs.     A  high  standard  was  set  up  for  the  priests  Mai.ais-g;  3:3. 
by  Malachi,  and  their  corruption  was  severely  denounced. 


40  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Mai.  3:8,  g.  Tithes  for  the  support  of  the  priests  were  still  in  force, 

but  were  reluctantly  paid. 
Ezra  3 .2, 3-  (c)  Sacrifice  ^2l^  2X  once  renewed  at  Jerusalem  upon 

the  return  from  exile,  if,  indeed,  it  had  ever  wholly  ceased. 
One  of  the  earliest  acts  was  the  erection  of  an  altar  of 
burnt-offering  upon  the  site  of  the  former  temple,  that 
the  regular  sacrifices  might  be  offered  to  Jehovah.  These 
sacrifices  were  probably  those  provided  for  in  Deuter- 
. 1 : 7, 8, i2-i4 ;  onomy  {cf.  §  27  (4))  and  earlier  laws.  Malachi  denounces 
'  those  who  bring  maimed,  imperfect,  and  polluted  offer- 
ings, and  insists  upon  the  best  of  everything  as  an  offer- 
ing to  Jehovah. 

(d)    Times  and  seasons.  —  These  probably  continued 

the  same  as  they  had  been  under  the  Deuteronomic  law. 

Ezra  3 14. 5;  Specific  mention  is  made,  in  the  literature  that  comes 

zech.^"-7;  from  these  days,  only  of  the  Feast  of  the  New  Moon,  the 

ec  .    .1  ,19-        Feast    of  Tabernacles,  the    Passover,  and  of  four   fasts 

which  had  been  observed  every  year  since  the  beginning 

of  the  exile. 

Ezra  3: 10, 11.  (^)   Other  acts  of  worship.  —  ( i )  Music  and  singing  are 

mentioned  in  connection  with  the  laying  of  the  founda 

Mai.  1:14.  tion   stone   of  the   temple.     (2)  Vows  were  still    made. 

Neh.  1:4-11;  2:4;  {i)  Sorcery  vj^&  not  even  yet  wholly  uprooted.     (4)  That 

®  '^'  the  habit  of  prayer  was  not  discontinued  is  clear  from 

Nehemiah's  statements  concerning  himself  at  a  little  later 

time. 

§  34.  The  Priestly  Character  of  the  Prophetic  Work  of 
these  later  years  is  seen  in  — 

Hag.  i:8-io;  {o)  The  cmphasis  laid  upon   the  necessity  of  build- 

Zech.  1 :  16;  4:9;     .  1,1  ••^..xi  •  .f 

6:12-15.  mg  the  temple  as  a  prerequisite  to  the  enjoyment  of 

Jehovah's   favor.     This  is  the  main  theme  of  Haggai's 

prophecy. 
Zech. 3:1-10;  {h)  The  prominence  given  to  priestly  interests  in  the 

7:1-7;' 8: 18,' 19.    utterances  of  Zechariah,  who  speaks  of  the  temple,  the 

high- priest,  fasts,  feasts,  etc. 
Mai.  1:6-14;  {<:)  The  large  place  given   to  matters  pertaining  to 

i^i.'3?i-4;  worship  in  the  book  of  Malachi,  which  probably  comes 

Mai.'4:4.'  from  the  very  end  of  this  period.     The  main  interest  of 

the  author  seems  to  be  centered   in  an  effort  to  reform 

the  ritual  and  those  who  have  charge  of  it. 


WORSHIP    IN    MIDDLE    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  4I 

§35.  The  Songs  and  Hymns  of  the  Middle  Period  are 
very  numerous.  Their  spirit  may  be  gathered  from  the 
following  examples  : 

(i)   Songs  celebrating  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem,   Pss.  46148. 
as  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah. 

(2)  Songs  describing  the  wickedness  of  the  times,   Pss.  36 ;  54 ;  64. 
as  in  the  days  of  Manasseh. 

(3)  Songs   depicting    the   destruction   of  Jerusalem   Pss. 80;  st- 
and the  going  into  captivity. 

(4)  Songs  expressing   the   sense   of    loneliness   and   Pss.  137;  22;  69; 
wretchedness  experienced  during  the  exile. 

(5)  Songs  celebrating  the  joy  and  gladness  of   the   pss.i26;ii5. 
return  from  exile. 

(6)  Songs  of  the  second  temple,  written  particularly   Pss.  106;  107. 
for  congregational  worship. 

It  is  to  be  noted  concerning  the  songs  thus  classi- 
fied— 

(a)  That  those  of  earlier  date  were  considerably 
modified  in  the  later  days  when  the  use  of  songs  in 
congregational  worship  was  more  thoroughly  established. 

(d)  That  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  fix  exactly  the 
date  of  many  psalms  because  of  the  lack  of  historical 
indications;  /.  e.,  references  to  historical  events. 

(c)  That  many  psalms  which  seem  to  express  indi- 
vidual experiences  and  aspirations  are  really  congrega- 
tional in  their  character;  i.  e.,  they  were  written  to  express 
the  feelings  of  a  community. 

{d)  That  a  fuller  treatment  of  this  part  of  the  ele- 
ment of  worship  will  be  presented  later. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE     HISTORY    OF     WORSHIP     IN     THE     LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT     PERIOD. 

§36.  The  Later  Old  Testament  Period  in  the  history  of  worship  is 
the  story  oi  Judaism,  that  is,  the  Jewish  religion,  which  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Hebrew  religion.  The  period,  rightly  considered,  (i)  begins 
with  the  Babylonian  exile  (§  30),  for  at  that  time  were  set  in  motion 
the  great  ideas,  and  the  modifications  of  old  ideas,  which  finally  made 
up  Judaism  ;  but  (2)  the  time  in  which  the  distinct  establishment  and 
substantial  development  of  Judaism  took  place  falls  within  the  two 
centuries  of  Persian  supremacy  (538-332  B.  C.) ;  while  (3)  the  cen- 
tury and  a  half  from  332  B.  C.  to  165  B.  C,  the  period  of  Greek 
influence,  had  for  its  great  achievement  the  final  testing  and  rounding- 
out  of  Judaism. 

See  Kent,  A  History  of  the  Jewish  People  during  the  Babylonian,  Persian  and 
Greek  Periods,  pp.  v-vii  ;  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp. 
500  f. 

§37.  Some  of  the  Most  Striking  Characteristics  of  this 
period  are  these  : 

(i)  It  is  the  last  division  of  the  Old  Testament 
period.  Is  it  a  climax  or  an  anti-climax?  Is  it  a 
step  higher  in  the  development  of  the  true  religious 
conception,  or  is  it  a  step  lower  than  has  hitherto  been 
taken  ? 
c/. Ezra  1:5.  (2)  It  is  prevailingly /r^>i'//y  in   its  character,  for  {a) 

a  king  no  longer  sits  on  Judah's  throne  ;  {b)  the  prophet's 
voice  and  authority  are  now  largely  a  thing  of  the  past ; 
Zech.  3:1-7;  while  {c)  it  is  the  high-priest  who  occupies  the  place  of 

^■"'  supremacy  alike  in  church  and  state.     In  Israel's  earli- 

est days  the  king  acted  as  priest ;  now  the  priest  acts  as 
king. 

(3)  It  is  distinctly  an  ecclesiastical  situation   which 

presents  itself  to  our  view  ;  in  fact,  we  are  studying  the 

history  of  a  church,  not  that  of  a  state. 

Neh.,chap.  8.  (4)  In  view  of  all  this,  it  is  natural  enough  to  find 

that  the  great  event  which  characterized  this  period,  the 

42 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  43 

event  which  the  sacred  historians  chronicled  with  especial 
emphasis,  was  the  promulgation  of  the  Levitical  laiv  by 
Ezra,  With  this  we  may  compare  the  giving  of  the 
Deuteronoihic  law,  in  its  relationship  to  the  middle 
period  (§28). 

§  38.  The  Situation  Culminating  with  the  Building  of 
the  Temple,  516  B.  C,  presents  the  following,  among 
other,  elements  which  may  be  taken  as  directly  grow- 
ing out  of  the  exile  and  leading  tip  to  this  later 
period  : 

(i)  Jeremiah's  teaching  of  individualism,  which  empha-   Jer.  31 :29-34; 
sized  the  fact  that  each  individual  sustained  a  distinct  Deut.'24:i6.' 
personal  relation  to  Jehovah  in  addition  to  his  relation 
to  him  as  a  part  of  the  nation.     Each  man  is  responsible 
for  his  own  sins  and  for  those  only,  and  his  acceptance 
with  God  depends  upon  himself  alone. 

(2)  Ezekiel's  teaching  of  the  new  communiiy ,  2i  ntvf   Ezek.,  chaps.  40- 
city  in  which  no  government  will  be  needed,  for  there      ''^' 

will  be  no  crime  and  no  injustice.  God  will  be  judge. 
He  will  bestow  upon  the  people  all  that  they  need. 
The  city  will  have  no  obligation  to  provide  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  people.  God  will  fight  Israel's  battles,  and  Ezek.  39:1-16; 
Israel's  only  work  will  be  to  bury  the  corpses  of  the  '^^'illi%^X^-^o. 
slain.  What,  now,  will  prince  and  people  do  ?  Engage 
in  worship,  continual  worship.  The  only  object  of  care 
will  be  the  temple  and  its  materials  ;  the  only  taxes  will 
be  church  taxes.  This  is  Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  on  earth. 

(3)  There    is   general   recognition   of    the  idea  that   Ezek.,  chap.  18; 
Israel's  religion,  and,  indeed,  its  national  existence,  was   '^^^^■^■^°-^'^- 
not  dependent  upon  a  monarchy,  nor,  indeed,  upon  any 
particular  form  of  government. 

(4)  There  exists  a  more  general  readiness  to  accept   zech.  1:15; 
the  teachings  of  the  prophets,  which  at  the  time  of  their   f/joei2:28,29. 
utterance  were  unheeded  or  rejected. 

(5)  The  necessity  for  meeting  together  in  small  groups   Ezek.  s :  i ; 
for  worship,  and   the   nature  of  the   exercises   possible  cf!vs^n-  8 
under  the  circumstances,  viz.,  public  reading  of  scrip- 
ture and  prayer,  are  leading  to  the  organization  of  syna- 
gogues. 


4  4  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Eiod.  20:23-  (6)  With  the  book  of  the  Covenant  (§  20),  and  the  book 

of  Deuteronomy  (§  25)  which  had  become  the  adopted 
code  of  religious  life,  and  the  more  recent  and  more  elabo- 

Ezek.,  chaps.  40-   rate  program  of  worship  suggested  by  Ezekiel  (§31),  all 

<r/.  isa.  51 :  17-20.  in  existence,  and  all  rendered  impossible  of  observance  hj 
the  circumstances  of  the  people,  there  is  seen  to  be  a 
great  indefiniteness  and  uncertainty  in  the  situation, 
which,  while  confusing,  signified  most  clearly  that  the 
"Law"  was  not  yet  finished,  and  prepared  the  minds  of 
the  people  for  the  more  definite  and  final  formulation 
still  to  be  made. 

c/. Ezra  1:2-4;  (7)  The  broad  and  generous  policy  of  Cyrus  and  his 

Ezra  7: 11-26;        successors  on  the  Persian  throne,  a  policy  of  state  and 

e  .2:1-9.  religion  very  different  from  that  of  preceding  history,  as 

well  as  from  that  of  still  later  times,  made  possible  in 

the  way  of  progress  and  growth  what  otherwise  would 

have  been  impossible. 

jer.  24:1-10.  (8)  The   higher  character   of  the   Babylonian   Jews, 

and  the  special  circumstances  of  their  environment,  as 
distinguished  from  that  of  the  Jews  who  remained  in 
Judah,  forms  an  important  factor  in  the  movement 
toward  national  exclusiveness  which  is  henceforth  to  be 
so  prominent. 

Hag.  2:69;  (9)  The  expectations,  publicly  announced,  of  Haggai 

"*'^'^'  and  Zechariah  that  in  the  political  upheavals  of  the  day 
(/.  <?.,  the  revolts  of  the  Babylonians  in  519  and  515  B.  C. 
against  the  Persian  rule)  deliverance  and  glory  would 
come  to  Israel ;  the  embassy  of  four  Jews  from  Babylon, 
bringing  gifts  of  silver  and  gold  which  are  made  into  a 

Zech.6:9i2.         crown   for  Zerubbabel  (not  Joshua);  and  the  fact  that 

Zech.  3:8.  Zerubbabel  had  been  given  the  name  Branch  or  Sprout  — 

all  this  points  to  the  suggestion  that  there  were  many  who 
still  expected  a  descendant  of  David  to  sit  upon  Israel's 
throne  ;  but  the  hope  was  impossible  of  realization  because 
(a)  the  whole  trend  of  events  was  toward  the  priestly  rule, 
and  {I))  perhaps  the  Persian  authorities  may  have  interfered 
to  prevent  an  act  which  would  certainly  have  led  to  treason, 

??Neh.!cLp'.  6.    just  as  they  did  in  the  case  of  the  building  of  the  temple. 

See  Chevne,/^ww//  Religious  Life  after  the  Exile,  p.  15  ;  KENT, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  147  f. 


WORSHIP    IN     LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  45 

(10)  The  residence  in  Babylon  brought  the  Jews  into 
close  touch  with  an  elaborate  system  of  sacrifice,  the 
most  important  characteristic  of  which  was  the  propitia- 
tory idea.  This  is  significant  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
henceforward    the    greatest    possible    emphasis    will    be 

placed  upon  sacrifice  as  an  atonement,  and  upon  prayer  Lev.,  chap.  16; 
iox  forgiveness.  NehV.:4-ii. 

See  Paul  Haupt,  "  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitical 
Ritual,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  55-8 1; 
Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  p.  668, 

(11)  Because  in  Babylon  there  was  no  chance  to  offer  isa.  58:3^.; 

^  Ezra  8: 21; 

sacrifice,  such  a  thing  being  utterly  inconceivable, /a:j-//V/p-  Neh.  1:4; 
■  •  .<^      J        •  ,  Joeii:i4; 

came  mto  great  prominence,  since  "by  denying  them-   Zech.  7:3-5- 

selves  their  ordinary  food  they  gave  expression  to  the 

intensity  of  their   feelings,  and  at   the  same  time  laid 

before  Jehovah  a  gift  which  could  be  presented  at  any 

time  and  at  any  place." 

See  Kent,  op.  cit.,  p.  43  ;  Benzinger,  article  "Fasting,"  §  6,  in 

Encyclopcedia  Biblica;  Stanton,  article  "Fasting,"  §§  i(5  and  3,  in 

Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  Cheyne,  op.  cit.,  pp.  9-1 1. 

(12)  It  was,  likewise,  because  in   Babylon  the  great  Ezek,so:xa-a4. 
feast  days  could  not  be  properly  or  regularly  observed, 

that  greater  and  greater  attention  was  given  to  the 
observance  of  the  sabbath,  for  this  could  be  done  any- 
where. The  nature  of  the  observance  was  probably 
much  influenced  by  the  customs  in  vogue  in  Babylon. 

(13)  The  removal  to  another  land,  and  residence  in 
that  land,  took  away  the  narrow  conception  of  a  national 
god  which  had  always  existed  among  the  masses ;  and 
now  the  time  has  come  when  first  the  people  as  such 

will  accept  the  great  and   fundamental   doctrine  of  one  isa.  44:6. 
god,  i.  e.,  monotheism.     But  Jehovah,  in  becoming   the   isa.  40:28. 
creator  of  the  world,  and  the  ruler  of  the  universe,  will 
not  seem  to  be  in  as  close  touch  as  formerly  with  his 
people.     He  will  be  holy,  in  the  sense  of  being  sepa- 
rated.    He  will  be  higher  and  more  majestic;  less  fami-   153.40:12-17. 
liar  and  more  dignified,  because  greater. 

See  Montefiore,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (=  Hibbert 
Lectures,  1892),  pp.  228,  268  f.;  ScHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  175  f.;  Davidson,  article  "  God,"  §IV,  (4),  in  Hastings' 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 


46  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(14)  According  to  the  manner  in  which  the  individual 
Israelites  meet  these  new  and  strange  conditions  they 

Neh.  13 :  15-28.  will  divide  themselves  into  two  classes:  («)  those  who 
break  away  from  their  old  religion  because  of  inability  to 
adopt  a  larger  faith  and  a  broader  conception  of  God,  or 
because  of  personal  advantage  gained  by  giving  up  the 

Mai.3:i6-i8.  old;  and  {b)  those  who,  in  spite  of  calamity  and  mis- 
apprehension, maintain  themselves  steadfast  and  true. 
This  means  a  purging  of  the  people,  the  growing 
stronger  of  those  who  are  strong,  and  the  weeding  out  of 
those  who  are  weak. 

See  Kent,  op.  ciL,  pp.  221  f.;  Montefiore,  op.  cit.,  pp.  291  ff. 

Hag.  2:3;  (15)  When    it    was    realized    quite    clearly  that    the 

promises  of  the  prophets  were  not  to  be  fulfilled  at  the 
time  of  the  return  from  exile,  there  was  disappointment 

Mai.  2:17.  2,nd  despair  on  every  side.     Some  became  indifferent  to 

isa.  59 : 9-15.  God,  for  they  put  on  him  the  blame  for  their  disappoint- 

ment. Others,  the  more  devout,  took  the  blame  upon 
themselves.  With  full  faith  in  God's  ability  to  do  the 
things  which  he  had  promised,  they  reasoned  in  their 
hearts  that  this  glorious  future  must  have  failed  of  reali- 
zation because  of  Israel's  sin  ;  yes,  because  of  their  own 
unworthiness    this    glory  was  being   postponed.     They 

Cf.  the   prophet   reasoned   further:  We,  who  have  sinned   and  have  thus 

iIa°42??8-^25.^°   made  it  impossible  for  the  great  day  of  deliverance  to  be 

ushered  in  —  ^ve  must  change  our  ways  ;  we  must  become 

c/.  Ps.  15.  more  holy;  we  must  increase  our  piety  ;  our  lives  must 

be  of  such  purity  that  God  will  be  compelled  to  keep  his 
pro?nises.  It  was  this  situation  and  this  interpretation 
of  it  that  prepared  the  way  for  "the  legalism  and  the 
salvation  by  works  of  the  later  Judaism." 

See  CORNILL,  Prop/lets  of  Israel,  pp.  155-9. 

§  39.  A  Great  Reaction  Came  after  the  Building  of  the 

Temple  in  516  B.C.,  which  lasted  nearly  three-quarters  of 

a  century.     Concerning  this  it  will  be  noted  — 

Neh. 5: 1-12;  (i)  That,  in  all  probability,  only  a  few  of  the  Baby- 

MaL2:io.  Ionian  Jews   had  yet  returned;'  the  weak,  narrow,  and 

'  The  question  of  dates,  always  a  more  or  less  difficult  one,  is  in  this  case  especially 

difficult.     Cf.  Kent,  op.  cit.,  pp.  196  ff.;  H.  E.  Ryle,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Cambridge 

Bible),  pp.  xxxviii-xlv;  Cheyne,  op.  cit.,  pp.  36-81 ;  C.  C.  Torrey,  The  Composition 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  47 

selfish  elements  were  in  control ;  the  rulers  were  greedy 
of  gain,  oppressing  the  poor. 

(2)  There  was  in  the  community  a  strong  tendency 
toward  skepticism.  The  so-called  "scorners"  were  in 
the  majority,  and  included  in  their  number  not  only  rulers 
but  priests,  and  these  openly  expressed  doubts  as  to  all 
the  religious  practices  and  opinions  of  the  times,  e.  g., 

(a)  weariness  of   the  routine  of  sacrifice;  (d)  what  real   Mai.  1:13. 
benefit  comes  from   serving  God?  (c)  why  not  just  as  0131.3:14,15. 
well  worship  the  heathen  gods  ?  (^)  what  difference  does  Mai.  2:17. 
it  make  whether  a  man  does  right  or  wrong  ? 

(3)  Under  these  circumstances  the  condition  of  wor- 
ship was  greatly  degraded.     This  was  seen  in  — 

(a)  The  complaint  of  the  priests  as  to  the  weariness  Mai.  1:13. 
of  their  occupation. 

(<5)  The  low  character  of  the   high-priests,  who  were  Neh.i3:4-9, 28. 
among  the  most  guilty. 

(c)  The  readiness  of  the  people  to  cheat  Jehovah  in   Mai.  1:6-14. 
their  sacrifices. 

(d)  The  attitude  of  the  priests  in  general  toward  the   Mai.  1:8;  2:8,9. 
entire  service,  including  the  sacrifice,  so  that  the  whole 
ceremonial  came  into  contempt. 

(e)  The  failure  of    the  people    to    pay  their    tithes,   Mai.  3:8-12. 
so    that    the    support    of   the    entire    system  was  about 

to  fail. 

(/)  The  marriage  of  the  priests  into  families  of  outside  Neh.  13:23-28; 

,  ,         ,  ,  Mai.  2 :  10-16. 

nations  who  served  other  gods. 

(4)  But  there  still  remained  the  company  of  "  faithful   Mai.  3:15-18; 
ones,"  who  feared  Jehovah,  and  were  called  "the  just,"      101:6;  113:7. 
"the  poor  and  needy"  (c/.  above,  §  38,  ( 14),  (15)). 

§  40.  Nehemiah's  Coming  444  B.  C.  Was  a  Great  Event 

in  the  history  of  Judaism. 

(i)  His  work  as  a  reformer  and  upbuilder  of  Jerusa-   Neh.  1:1-7:5; 
1        •      1    J   J  12:27-43. 

lem  included — 

(a)  The  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  as  a  pro-   Neh.  2:12— 6:15. 

tection  against  attack,  and  as  a  means  of  separating  the 

Jews  from  their  heathen  neighbors. 

and  Historical  Value  of  Ezra-Nehemiah,  pp.  51-65;  W.  H.  KosTERS  AND  T.  K. 
Cheyne,  article  "Ezra"  in  Encyclopcedia  Biblica;  L.  W.  Batten,  article  "Nehe- 
miah  "  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 


48  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Neh.,  chap.  II.  {b)  The   repopulating  of    Jerusalem   by  bringing   in 

Jews  from  the  surrounding  country  to  dwell  there. 
Neh.  13:23-28;  ^^^  T^^g  prohibition  of  marriages  with  heathen  peoples 

and  the  driving  out  of  all   foreigners  from  the  Jewish 

community. 
Neh.,  chap.  5.  (^^^    Tht   restoration  to  its    original    owners    of    all 

property  that  had  been  acquired  by  mortgages  and  usury, 

and  the  remission  of  all  interest. 
Neh.  13 :  15-22.  (^g^    ^\^Q  institution   of  a  stricter  observance  of   the 

sabbath,  which  had  heretofore  been  freely  violated. 
Neh.  13:10-13;  (2)  But  in  addition  to  all  this  he  turned  his  attention 

Neh.  10 :  32-39.  ^    ' 

to  the  temple  and  its  service.  Finding  that  this  was 
being  neglected  because  the  Levites  were  under  the 
necessity  of  working  in  the  fields  for  their  support,  he 
took  steps  to  secure  the  regular  payment  of  the  tithes, 
and  appointed  faithful  officials  to  distribute  them  to  the 
Levites.  He  also  made  regulations  for  the  proper 
observance  of  sacrifices,  offerings,  and  feasts. 

§41.  The  Work  of  Ezra,  in  all  probability,  followed 
that  of  Nehemiah,  the  latter  having  by  his  masterful  skill 
prepared  the  way  {cf.  §40).  The  steps  in  his  eventful 
career  may  be  summarily  classified  as  follows  : 

Ezra  7:1^;  (i)  T\\e  journey  took  place  in  the  seventh  year  of 

Artaxerxes,  occupied  a  period  of  four  months,  and  was 
made  without  military  escort,  since  Ezra  refused  to 
manifest  distrust  in  Jehovah's  protection  by  asking  the 
aid  of  Artaxerxes. 

Ezra  7: 15-23;  (2)  The  giffs  said  to  have  been  offered  by  Artaxerxes 

and  his  princes  for  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  and  its  service, 
together  with  the  requisition  made  by  the  king  upon  the 
governors  of  the  western  provinces  and  the  free-will  offer- 
ings of  the  Babylonian  Jews  themselves,  were  of  great 
value,  and  were  faithfully  guarded  and  handed  over  to 
the  temple  officials. 

Ezra  7: 14-27.  (3)  The    immediate  pnrpose  was   to  establish    more 

securely  and  develop  more  elaborately  the  facilities  for 
worship  in  the  temple.  Matters  relating  to  the  service 
and  to  the  temple  seem  to  have  occupied  the  entire 
time  and  attention  of  the  reformers  for  a  couple  of 
months  after  their  arrival. 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  49 

§42.  The  Formal  Adoption  of  the  Law  took  place  at  Neh.,  chaps, 
a  public  assembly  of  all  the  people.  The  method  of 
procedure  was  in  general  the  same  as  that  used  when  the 
Deuteronomic  law  was  publicly  adopted  by  the  nation 
(see  §  25).  The  law  was  first  read  aloud  in  the  hearing  of 
the  people.  This  produced  a  sense  of  sin  and  short- 
coming on  the  part  of  all,  and  was  followed  by  public  con- 
fession. After  this  a  solemn  covenant  was  entered  into 
by  all  the  people  to  observe  the  requirements  of  the  new 
law,  and  this  covenant  was  signed  by  the  representatives 
of  the  people,  viz.,  the  princes,  priests,  and  Levites. 

§  43.  The  Law  as  Thus  Proclaimed  and  Accepted — 

(i)  Is  described  in  Nehemiah  as  — 

(a)  Prohibiting     marriages    with    the    surrounding   Neh.  10:30. 
heathen. 

(i)  Providing  for  a  strict  observance  of  the  sabbaths  Neh.  10:31. 
and  holy  days. 

ic')   Enforcing  the  observance  of  \.\\&  sabbatical  year,  Neh.  10:31. 
with  the  accompanying  remission  of  all  debts. 

{d)  Imposing  an  annual  tax  of  one-third  of  a  shekel   Neh.  10:32,  33. 
per  capita  for  the  support  of  the  services  of  the  temple, 
including  the  offerings. 

(<?)  Arranging  for  the  wood  to  be  furnished  for  the  Neh.  10:34. 
burnt-offerings  at  stated  intervals. 

(/)  Enjoining  the  bringing  of  all /r5/-/rz//Vj  and /r.f/-   Neh.  10  35-37. 

lings  to  the  priests  at  the  temple. 

{g)   Requiring   that  the  people   give    tithes    to   the   Neh.  10:38. 
Levites  in  the  various  cities,  and  that  the  Levites  bring  a 
tithe  of  these  tithes  to  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 

{h)  Calling  for  a  hearty  support  of   the  temple  and   Neh.  10:39. 
constant  faithfulness  to  it. 

(2)  Contains  regulations  unknown  to  Deuteronomy,  Neh.^'^o^:  31^^^.^^^ 
e.  g.,  the  requirement  that  the  land  lie  fallow  every  sab-   j^^^s,^^  '^g. 
batical  year  ;  the  tax  of  one-third  of  a  shekel  for  the  tem-   ^^i^^^eut.  i4^:_^^ 
pie    services;    the   arrangement    for    the    provision    of 
fire-wood  ;  and  the  law  concerning  tithes,  which  departs 

widely  from  the  Deuteronomic  law. 

(3)  Was  substantially  the  body  of  regulations  found 
in  Exod.,  chaps.  25-31  ;  34  :  29—40  :  38  ;  Leviticus,  and 
Numbers ;  in  other  words,  the  so-called  Levitical  code. 


50  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

See  Kent,  op.  cit.,  p.  212;  Cheyne,  op.  cit.,  pp.  72  f.;  Monte- 

FIORE,  O/.  cit.,  pp.  315  ff.;  J.  ESTLIN  CARPENTER  AND  G.  HaRFORD 
Battersby,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  137-41 ;  Wellhausen, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  404-10. 

§44.    The  Significance  of  This  Important  Event  lies  in 

the  following  points  : 

c/.Neh.  10:30, 31  (i)  The  immediate  connection  of  these  new  resrula- 

with  13 ;  15-24 ;  '^ 

Ezra 9: 1.  tions  with  the  times.     They  grew  out  of  the  effort  to 

improve  the  existing  moral  and  religious  condition  of 

the  people,  and  they  contain  the  principles  that   formed 

the  basis  of  the  work  of  reform. 

(2)  The  fact  that,  although  some  additions  remained 
still  to  be  made  to  this  code,  it  was  substantially  complete. 

(3)  The  adoption  and  incorporation  into  this  code 
of  the  important  teachings  of  the  prophets.  It  presented 
in  the  concrete  and  tangible  form  of  specific  precepts 
the  great  general  truths  that  the  prophets  had  long 
endeavored  to  inculcate.  It  presented  truth  and  duty 
objectively,  and  thus  met  with  a  greater  immediate  suc- 
cess than  the  prophets'  work  had  ever  achieved. 

c/.,c.i'.,Lev.i6:i  (4)  The  overwhelming  preponderance  of  material  in 

^/^^■^'■ly.vy—   the  code  relating  to  service  or  worship. 

Lev.  1*4:10-32;  (5)  The  place  occupied  in  it  by  sacrifice,  and  the 

Exod.' 29^:^3^-42.  emphasis  (see  §38,  (10))  placed  upon  the  idea  of  pro- 
pitiation and  forgiveness. 

Neh.  10:37, 38.  (6)  The  great  advance  made  by  the  priests  and  Levites  ; 

their  support  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  fitful  charity,  as  it 
was  under  the  Deuteronomic  law,  but  is  made  a  standing 
obligation  upon  the  people,  over  the  discharge  of  which 
the  priests  and  Levites  themselves  are  given  control. 

§45.  Another  Important  Headquarters  for  Worship,  the 
Samaritan  Temple  on  Mount  Gerizim,   grew  out  of  this 

2  Kings  17:6, 24-  priestly  reformation.  The  Samaritans  were  a  mixed  race, 
whose  ancestors  were  the  poorer  Israelites  left  behind 
after  the  deportation  of  the  more  influential  classes  to 
Assyria  at  the  time  of  the  fall  of  Samaria,  and  the  Baby- 
lonian colonists  who  were  brought  to  Israel  in  place  of 
the  deported  captives.  Their  religion  was  thus  naturally 
a  corrupt  mixture  of  Israelitish  and  Babylonian  ideas  and 
practices.  They  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  Josiah's 
reformation,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  regarding  Jerusalem 


41  ;r/.  25:  II,  12. 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  5 1 

as  the  only  lawful   place  of  worship.     Hence,  when  the   Ezra,  chap.  4. 
effort  to  rebuild  the  temple  was  begun,  the  Samaritans 
sought  to  have  a  part  in  the  work  ;  but,  being  denied  this 
privilege  by  the  stricter  Jews,  they  seem  to  have  used 
their  influence  to  obstruct  the  work.     Nehemiah's  atti-   Neh.  218-20. 
tude  toward  them  was  one  of  uncompromising  opposition. 
They,  for  their  part,  opposed  and  hindered  him  greatly  Neh.  4 : 1-23 ;  6 ■  i- 
in  his  work  of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.     The   Neh.  13:28. 
climax  of  Nehemiah's  hostility  to  them  was  reached  when 
he  expelled  the  grandson  of  the  high-priest  from  Jerusa- 
lem because  he  had  married  the  daughter  of  Sanballat, 
one  of  the  Samaritan  princes.     The  new  law,  adopted 
when  feeling  was  at  such  a  pitch,  of  course  gave  the 
Samaritans  no  part  in  the  worship  at  Jerusalem.     Conse- 
quently they  withdrew  and  built  a  temple  for  themselves 
on  Mount  Gerizim.     In  all  probability  many  Jews  who 
had    contracted    heathen    marriages   went    over    to    the 
Samaritan   community,  to   which   they  were    so   closely 
bound  by  family  ties,  and  thus  the  community  of  the 
faithful  was  freed  from  many  troublesome  elements. 

See  MoNTEFiORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  351  f.;  Cheyne,  op.  cit.,  pp.  25-35  '. 
Wellhausen,  op.  cit.,  p.  498;  GUTHE,  article  "Israel,"  §65,  in 
EncyclopcBdia  Biblica. 

§46.  The  Last  Century  of  Persian  Rule  (425-332) 
witnessed  — 

(i)  The  return  of  many  Jews  from  the  lands  in  which 
they  had  been  scattered  ;  for  this  return,  like  the  first 
entrance  into  Canaan,  was  very  gradual. 

(2)  The  growing  influence  of  those  who  thus  returned 
as  over  against  that  of  those  who'  had  remained. 

(3)  Great  opportunity  at  first  for  free  growth  and  expan- 
sion because  of  the  weakness  of  the  government  of  Persia. 

(4)  Serious  calamity,  later,  because  of  the  contest 
between  Egypt  and  Persia,  a  contest  in  which  the  Jews 
were  compelled  to  take  part,  and  in  which  they  suffered 

as  perhaps  never  before  in  their  history.     From  psalms   Pss.74;  79- 
of  this  period  we  learn  that  the  enemy  entered  Jerusalem 
and    the    temple    itself,    in    which    they   set   up   their 
heathen  standards  and  committed  ruthless  acts  of  van- 
dalism, even  setting  the  temple  on  fire.     Not  satisfied 


52 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


with  this,  they  burned  all  the  synagogues  of  the  land 
and  slaughtered  the  people  mercilessly,  so  that  blood 
ran  like  water  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem. 

See  EwALD,  History  of  Israel,  Yo\.Y,  pp.  165-206;  Cheyne, 
Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  pp.  357-63  ;  W.  Emory  Barnes, 
article  "History  of  Israel,"  §10,  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible;  Guthe,  article  "Israel,"  §66,  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica; 
Kent,  op.  cit.,  pp.  224-8. 

§47.  The  Religio-Political  Organization  of  Judaism, 
which  had  thus  become  crystallized,  considered  as  to  its 
outer  form,  was  z.hierarchy,  a  government  by  priests  ;  for — 

(1)  The  chief  ruler  was  the  high-priest,  who  had 
despotic  authority  over  the  people,  was  robed  in  the 
royal  purple,  and  alone  represented  the  people  before 
Jehovah  in  the  holy  of  holies. 

(2)  The  ruling  aristocracy  was  made  up  of  priests, 
many  of  them  related  to  the  high-priest. 

(3)  The  servants  of  the  priests  and  the  sanctuary 
were  the  Levites. 

(4)  The  religious  and  civil  functions  are  performed 
by  one  class,  the  priests.  There  is  now  no  nation  ;  it  is  a 
church. 

(5)  The  scribes  come  forward  in  response  to  the 
need  of  the  times.  Since  the  regulations  concerning 
life  and  worship  were  now  fixed  and  written  down,  there 
arose  a  demand  for  copies  of  the  written  law  for  the  use 
of  synagogues  and  individuals.  The  scribes  who  pre- 
pared these  copies,  being  naturally  better  educated  than 
the  great  majority  of  the  people  and  spending  most  of 
their  time  in  the  study  of  the  law,  soon  came  to  be  looked 
to  as  peculiarly  well-fitted  to  interpret  the  law  to  those 
less  conversant  with  it.^ 

See  Montefiore,  op.  cit.,  pp.  392-6. 

§  48.  The  Place  and  Acts  of  Worship  are  Adjusted  to 
the  New  Situation. 

(i)  The  temple  more  and  more  came  to  be  the  center 
of  the  whole  religious  system.     The  thought  of  it  as  the 
place  where  Jehovah  especially  manifested  his  presence 
gave  it  a  peculiar  sanctity,  so  that  none  but  the  holy 
'The  scope  of  the  activity  of  the  scribes  is  well  set  forth  in  a  saying  ascribed  to 
Simon  the  Just  (300-290  B.  C.) :  "Our  fathers  have  taught  us  three  things,  to  be  cau- 
tious in  judging,  to  train  many  scholars,  and  to  set  a  fence  about  the  Law." 


Exod.  28  : 1-39  : 
Lev.  16 : 1-3,  17, 


Numb.  18 : 1-7. 


Ezra  7:6, 10-12 

21 ; 
Eccles.  12:11. 


Pss.  76 
79:1. 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  53 

people  might  enter  its  precincts.  The  worst  crime  of 
which  an  enemy  could  be  capable  was  desecration  of  the 
temple.  But,  while  emphasis  was  thus  laid  upon  the 
temple,  there  was  growing  up  alongside  of  it  the  synagogi/e  Ps.  74:8. 
with  a  function  of  a  different  kind.  These  were  organized 
wherever  there  were  a  few  Jews  settled  who  wished  to 
study  the  law.  They  especially  supplied  the  religious 
needs  of  the  many  Jews  scattered  in  many  lands  who 
were  unable  to  make  frequent  visits  to  Jerusalem  in 
order  to  participate  in  the  splendid  worship  of  the  tem- 
ple. While  the  temple  services  centered  about  sacrifices 
and  offerings,  the  service  of  the  synagogue  centered  in 
the  reading  and  interpretation  of  the  law. 
See  MoNTEFiORE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  390  f. 

(2)  Sacrifice  now  took  on  more  and  more  a  propitia-  Lev. 6:24— 7:9; 
tory  character,  being  looked  upon  chiefly  as  atonement  Wumb.,  chaps.  a8; 
for  sin.  The  most  minute  regulations  were  made  as  to 
the  details  of  every  sacrifice,  the  manner  in  which  the 
offering  must  be  laid  upon  the  altar,  the  disposition  to 
be  made  of  the  fat  and  the  blood,  the  garments  to  be 
worn  by  the  officiating  priest,  etc.  It  seems  as  though 
the  temple  services  must  have  been  a  constant  succession^ 
of  sacrifices. 

(3)  Times  and  seasons  received  more  attention  than   Lev.  19:3; 
ever  before.     The  sabbath  was  particularly  insisted  upon  •  31-12  i  • 
as  a  sign  of   the   covenant   between    Jehovah    and    his 

people.     The  penalty  for  performing   any  work  on  the 
sabbath  was  death. 

(4)  The  sabbatical  year  was  now  made  wider  in  scope,   Lev.  25.1-7. 
so  as  to  include  the  land  itself  which  was  to  be  allowed 

to  lie  fallow.  Furthermore,  every  fifty  years  an  addi- 
tional year  of  jubilee  was  to  be  celebrated,  thus  making  Lev.  25:8-55. 
two  sabbatical  years  in  succession.  At  this  time  all 
Hebrew  slaves  were  to  be  released,  and  all  land  bought 
during  the  preceding  forty-nine  years  was  to  revert  to 
its  original  owners. 

(5)  The  feasts  provided   for  were  the  Passover  and   Lev. 23:4-8, 
Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  Numb.  2! :  ii^ff.. 
New  Moon,  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  the  New  Year's  Feast,   Lev.  23':  15  ff.; 
and  the  Day  of  Atonement.    They  were  all  definitely  dated   LeV.,  chap.'ie.' 


54 


PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


■? 


Lev.  23 :  32 ; 
Numb.  29 :  7 ; 
Joel  1:14; 
2:12, 15; 
Neh.  1:4;  9:1. 

Ezra,  chap.  9; 
Neh.  1:4-11; 

2:4;  5:19; 

6 : 9. 14 ;  9 :  5-; 

13:22. 


Neh.  7:1;  11:23; 
12:27-29,  42, 
45-47- 


Lev.  19 :  26,  31 ; 

Lev.  ao:6,  27. 


Lev.  22 :  18, 21,23; 

27:1-8. 
Ps.  84:  I,  2. 


by  month  and  day,  and  thus  were  still  farther  removed 
from  their  agricultural  origin.  The  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles was  now  celebrated  in  remembrance  of  the  fact  that 
the  Israelites  dwelt  in  tents  during  their  journey  in  the 
wilderness.  There  was  little  difference  in  the  manner  of 
celebrating  the  various  feasts  —  the  most  characteristic 
feature  of  them  all  is  the  endless  sacrifices  that  accom- 
panied them.  They  were  all  to  a  large  extent  of  an  expia- 
tory nature ;  nevertheless  it  was  felt  necessary  to  devote 
one  day  per  year  to  the  special  work  of  expiation,  viz., 
the  Day  of  Atonement. 

(6)  The  public /^.y/j- which  had  been  observed  during 
the  exile  in  commemoration  of  the  exile  and  of  the 
disasters  connected  with  it  were  not  incorporated  into 
the  new  law,  but  seem  to  have  come  to  an  end  in  Zecha- 
riah's  time.  That  fasting  in  general  was  highly  esteemed 
as  a  means  of  propitiating  Jehovah,  and  frequently  prac- 
ticed when  occasion  seemed  to  demand  it,  is  clear  in  view 
of  the  place  given  to  it  in  the  regulations  for  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  and  the  references  to  it  in  Joel  and  Nehemiah. 

(7)  Other  acts  of  worship.  —  Constant  recourse  was 
had  to  prayer  on  the  part  of  pious  Jews.  The  chief 
objects  of  prayer  seem  to  have  been  deliverance  from 
dangers,  help  in  trouble,  and  forgiveness  of  sin  with 
resulting  bestowal  of  blessings. 

That  singing  and  music  occupied  a  large  place  in 
worship  is  clear  from  the  allusions  to  the  singers  in  con- 
nection with  the  dedicatory  exercises  held  when  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  was  completed,  and  from  the  large  number 
of  psalms  that  come  from  this  period  (see  §  50). 

Soothsaying  and  magic  setm  to  have  been  still  prac- 
ticed, but  were  prohibited  by  the  law,  as  was  also  necro- 
mancy. 

Vows  were  recognized  and  provided  for  by  the  law. 

§49.  The  Full  Significance  of  This  New  Regime  is 
hard  to  grasp.  The  comfort  afforded  by  it  to  the  people 
cannot  be  questioned.  This  strange  system,  which  seems 
to  us,  in  our  love  of  freedom,  so  distasteful,  was,  after 
all,  the  highest  result  yet  achieved  in  the  development 
of  Israel's  religion.      It  was  based  upon  the  doctrines 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  55 

of  the  prophet-priests,  viz.,  individualism  and  solidarity. 

Its  keyviOtQ  wdi.'s,  monotheism.     Its  God  was  a  God  whose  Lev.  19:1-4; 

•  1  ,1-  J      1  1    ■         20:26;  22:15, 

supreme  attribute  was  holiness,  and  who  expected    in      16,31-33. 

every  individual  of  the  sacred  community  a  holiness  like 
his  own.  The  underlying  thought  was  the  overwhelm- 
ing sense  of  sin.  Now,  for  the  first  time,  the  preaching 
of  the  prophets  through  all  the  centuries  has  found  its 
place  in  the  hearts  of  the  people.  The  prayers  are  pss.  106:6-47; 
prayers  of  confession.  God  has  grown  greater,  and  man  *^°' 
more  humble  in  the  sight  of  God.  God  is  the  God  of 
the  whole  world.  Israel  is  a  company  of  individuals  in 
a  sacred  community.  Every  act  of  life  must  be  holy. 
The  religious  feeling  is  deeper  than  ever  before  and 
more  universal.  Men  are  anxious.  The  people,  bur- 
dened as  they  are  with  their  anxiety,  smitten  as  they 
are  in  their  consciousness  of  sin,  humbled  by  their 
ideal  of  God,  take  upon  themselves  the  severest  yoke 
ever  placed  by  religion  upon  the  neck  of  man.  A  serv- 
ice worthy  of  this  supreme  God  must  be  regulated  in  its 
most  minute  details.  The  service  everywhere  presents 
the  thought  of  sin.  Sacrifice  is  now  the  great  act,  and 
is  no  longer  accompanied  by  gladness  and  joy.  It  rep-  Lev.  4:1-6:7. 
resents  purification  from  sin.  It  is  "  the  chief  symbol, 
and  the  great  mystery  of  their  faith."  To  be  holy  one  Lev.,  chap.  15; 
must  wash  ;  one  must  touch  no  unclean  thing;  one  must  Exod.*3i1^'»-i7. 
not  eat  what  is  unclean  ;  one  must  observe  the  sabbath, 
the  day  of  God ;  and  all  these  acts  of  worship  cultivated 
the  spirit  of  exclusiveness.  Then  followed  that  haughty 
spirit.  "Man  who  would  go  up  to  the  hill  of  Jehovah  Lev. 21: 1-24. 
must  now  be  the  one  who  has  not  eaten  shellfish  or 
pork,  nor  opened  his  shop  on  the  sabbath,  nor  touched 
a  dead  body,  nor  used  a  spoon  handed  him  by  a  gentile 
without  washing  it."  We  know  the  outcome  of  ail  this, 
as  it  is  shown  us  in  the  New  Testament,  but  "it  kept  the 
people  separate  from  the  world  and  constant  to  their 
faith,  and  made  them  endure  the  greatest  temptations 
and  the  severest  persecutions,  and  so  enabled  them  to 
preserve  the  precious  treasure  committed  to  them  until 
the  time  should  come  when  the  world  was  to  receive  it 
from  their  hands." 


56  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

See   Cheyne,   op,   cit.,  pp.   73-81;    Kent,  op.  cit.,  pp.  213  f., 

249  ff.;    MONTEFIORE,   Op.    cit.,    pp.    465-552;    WELLHAUSEN,    Op.  cit., 

p.  497. 

§  50.  The  Psalms  of  the  Second  Temple  are  now  "Written, 
and  one  fails  to  see  the  deeper  meaning  of  all  this  if  he 
forgets  that   in  this  period  the  greatest  number  of    the 

Pss.  118;  131 ;  67.  psalms  were  written.  The  old  prophetic  ideas,  which  the 
people  in  the  times  of  the  prophet  had  refused  to  accept, 
are  now  a  part  of  the  people's  creed  and  are  sung  by 

Pss.  95;  46.  them  with  joyous  hearts  in  the  congregation.     Sacred 

Pss.  122;  138;  145;   song  becomes  preeminently  an  act   of  worship.      The 
"*   '^°"  worship  of  Jehovah  in  this  act  is  as  joyous  and  as  delight- 

ful as  it  maybe  sad  and  grewsome  in  the  act  of  sacrifice. 

Pss.  143:10;  139;   In  these  very  days,  when  such  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
"^'  letter  of  the  law,  the  service  of  song  teaches  that  to  obey 

Jehovah  and  to  trust  in  him,  to  surrender  one's  self 
absolutely  to  him,  is  the  end  of  all  religion.  Whatever 
may  be  the  experience  of  life,  it  finds  expression  in  these 
psalms  ;  whether  it  be  "  penitence,  intellectual  perplexity, 

Pss.  102;  91;  130;  domestic   sorrow,  feebleness,    loneliness,    the    approach 

Pss.   109;  116;   123.  ^        ,  ,  ,  .  r  1  r 

of  death,  the  excitement  of  great  events,  the  agony  of 
persecution,  or  the  quiet  contemplation  of  nature." 
For  each  experience  there  is  expression,  and  the  heart- 
utterances  which  formed  a  part  of  the  worship  of  this 
period,  sung,  to  be  sure,  in  the  midst  of  the  bleating  of  the 
lambs  which  are  being  slaughtered  for  the  sacrifice,  have 
proven  to  be  the  most  satisfying  utterances  for  the  soul, 
in  its  deepest  communion  with  God,  which  have  ever 
reached  the  heart  of  man.  The  ritual  may  have  been 
narrow,  but  the  heart  of  every  Jew  was  free.  He  was 
restrained  outwardly,  but  no  such  restraint  hindered  him 
in  the  working  of  his  mind  and  heart.  Here  was  con- 
tradiction, to  be  sure,  but  contradiction  no  greater  than 
is  found  in  the  tendency  to  substitute  the  synagogue  for 
the  temple,  which  now  exhibits  itself  in  spite  of  the 
exclusiveness  that  was  the  end  and  the  result  of  the 
Levitical  system. 
§51.  The  Greek  Period  of  Influence,  332-165  B.  C,  added  nothing 
essential  to  the  content  or  form  of  service.  It  furnished  the  test  of 
Judaism  for  which  the  work  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  had  been  an  uncon- 
scious preparation.     In  the  crisis  through  which  the  true  religion  was 


WORSHIP    IN    LATER    OLD    TESTAMENT    PERIOD  57 

to  pass  the  form  given  to  it  by  these  men  was  of  inestimable  value. 
In  the  words  of  Cornill :' 

That  the  development  of  Judaism  took  this  special  direction  was  a  neces- 
sity of  the  history  of  religion. 

For  the  heaviest  struggle  of  Judaism  still  awaited  it ;  the  struggle  against 
Hellenism.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five  years  after  Ezra,  Alexander  the 
Great  destroyed  the  Persian  empire  and  made  the  Greeks  the  sovereign  peo- 
ple of  the  eastern  world.  Through  this  a  profound  transformation  was  begun, 
which  spread  with  startling  rapidity  and  irresistible  might,  and  led  finally  to 
the  denationalizing  of  the  East.  That  which  the  Assyrian  had  undertaken 
by  brute  force  the  Hellenes  surmounted  by  the  superior  power  of  mind  and 
culture.  Greece  destroyed  the  nationalities  of  the  East  by  amalgamating 
them  with  itself  and  conquering  them  inwardly.  Only  one  eastern  nation 
withstood  the  process  of  dissolution,  yea,  more,  absorbed  into  itself  the  good 
of  Hellenism,  and  thus  enriched  and  strengthened  its  own  existence  ;  and  that 
was  the  Jewish.  If  it  were  able  to  do  this,  it  was  because  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah  had  rendered  it  hard  as  steel  and  strong  as  iron.  In  this  impenetrable 
armor  it  was  insured  against  all  attacks,  and  thus  saved  religion  against 
Hellenism.  And,  therefore,  it  behooves  us  to  bless  the  prickly  rind  to  which 
alone  we  owe  it  that  the  noble  core  remained  preserved. 

With  this  we  may  close  our  rapid  survey  of  the  history  of  the 
development  of  Israel's  worship.  In  the  light  of  this  survey  we 
shall  next  consider  the  more  important  special  divisions  included 
in  it,  viz.,  the  laws,  the  histories,  and  the  psalms. 

''Op.  cit.,  pp.  162  f. 


Paet  Third 


COMPARATIVE     STUDY    OF     THE     LAWS    AND    USAGES 
OF    WORSHIP 

V.  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  the  Priest. 

VI.  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  the  Place  of  Worship. 

VIL  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  Sacrifice. 

VIIL  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  Feasts. 

IX.  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  the  Sabbath. 

X.  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  Clean  and  Unclean. 

XL  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  Prayer  and  Related  Forms 
OF  Worship. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  PRIEST,  CONSIDERED  COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§  52.  To  Speak  of  the  History  of  "Worship,  as  It  is  Presented  in  the 
Old  Testament,  is  to  take  for  granted  (1)  that  there  were  periods,  (2) 
that  these  periods  differed  from  each  other  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
and  (3)  that  there  was  either  growth  or  decay,  or  perhaps  both.  The 
brief  survey,  just  finished,  distinguished  three  such  periods,  each  with 
its  peculiar  characteristics,  and  presented  what  seemed  to  be  a  striking 
case  of  development,  /.  e.,  growth  from  a  lower  and  less  complicated 
form  of  worship  to  one  higher  and  more  complicated.  These  periods 
were  called  early,  middle,  and  later. 

§  53.  Each  Period  Had  a  Lawbook  or  Code  of  Legislation  Peculiar  to 
Itself,  viz.:  (i)  the  Covenant  Code  (§14,  (3))  for  the  early  period, 
(2)  the  Deuteronoinic  Code  (§27)  for  the  middle  period,  and  (3)  the 
Levitical  Code  (§43)  for  the  later  period.  Injunctions  concerning 
nearly  every  topic  relating  to  worship  are  found  in  each  of  these  codes. 
These  injunctions  are  sometimes  couched  in  language  almost  the  same  ; 
in  other  cases  there  are  to  be  noted  differences  (additions  or  varia- 
tions) of  an  important  character  ;  in  still  other  cases  they  are  quite 
contradictory.  These  differences,  it  is  clear,  exist  because  through 
succeeding  centuries  the  people  (t?)  changed  their  place  of  abode, 
e.  g.,  from  the  desert  to  Canaan,  from  Canaan  to  Babylon,  and  back 
again  ;  {b)  changed  also  their  form  of  life,  passing  from  the  nomadic  to 
the  agricultural,  and  from  the  agricultural  to  the  more  centralized  or  city 
life  ;  {c)  changed  their  form  of  government,  passing  from  a  tribal  form 
to  the  monarchical,  and  from  that  to  a  theocratic  or  hierarchical  form; 
{d)  came  into  contact  with  different  nations,  from  whom  much  was 
learned,  <?.  g.,  the  Canaanites,  the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  the 
Persians,  and  the  Greeks ;  {e)  were  given  great  leaders,  lawgivers,  kings, 
and  prophets,  through  whom,  from  time  to  time,  new  and  better  ideas 
of  God  and  worship  were  taught. 

Now,  the  different  codes  named  above,  as  they  severally  appear  and 
are  adopted  by  the  nation,  reflect  the  onward  and  upward  movement 
of  the  people  toward  the  great  goal  of  the  nation's  history,  the  time 
when  Jesus   Christ   shall  come  and  teach   as  men   had  never  taught 

61 


62  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

before.  These  codes,  then,  are  different  expressions  of  the  usage  and 
law  of  successive  epochs.  To  understand  any  special  topic  connected 
with  worship,  one  must  examine  systematically  what  each  code  con- 
tains on  that  topic.  This  is  the  comparative  study  of  the  laws  relating 
to  worship. 

§  54.  The  Constructive  Study  of  a  Subject  is  Possible  Only  on  the 
Basis  of  the  Comparative  Study. —  It  is  not  the  earliest  usage  in  a  par- 
ticular case,  e.  g.,  a  distinction  between  the  priest  and  the  laity,  nor  the 
latest,  that  gives  us  a  true  idea  of  Israelitish  thought  and  custom  ;  it 
is,  rather,  the  latest  as  growing  out  of  and  including,  not  only  the 
earliest,  but  all  the  intervening  steps  between  the  two.  At  no  one 
time  did  growth  or  decay  stop  ;  and  it  is  only  when  we  have  the  whole 
process  before  us  that  we  begin  to  understand  its  significance. 

§  55.  Side  by  Side  with  the  Codes  We  Find  in  the  Hexateuch  Also  His- 
tories which  refer  frequently  to  customs  of  worship.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  each  code  is  imbedded  in  a  separate  history;  <?.  g.,  (a)  the 
Covenant  Code  is  a  part  of  a  great /r<?//zif//(r  history  beginning  with  the 
creation  and  continuing  down  to  the  times  of  the  Judges ;  (d)  the  Deu- 
teronomic  Code  (Deut.,  chaps.  12-26)  is  a  part  of  a  history  which  is 
found,  not  only  in  the  earlier  part  of  Deuteronomy,  but  also  in  some 
places  in  Joshua,  and  elsewhere  ;  while  (c)  the  Priest  Code  is  also  closely 
connected  with  a  history  which  begins  with  Gen.  i  :  i  and  continues 
through  Numbers.  In  studying  the  subject  of  worship,  it  is  of  interest 
to  note  what  is  said  in  these  histories  concerning  each  subject  considered. 

§56.  The  Later  Histories  contained  in  the  books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
and  Chronicles  give  especial  attention  to  the  subject  of  worship.  Just 
as  the  history  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  is  written  from  the 
prophetic  point  of  view,  that  in  these  later  books  is  written  from  the 
priestly  point  of  view  (see  §  10),  and  hence  gives  much  information  con- 
cerning the  institutions  of  worship  as  they  existed  at  the  time  these 
books  were  written. 

§57.  The  Prophets  Were  Always  Deeply  Interested  in  Matters  of 
Worship;  sometimes,  as  opponents  of  the  ideas  and  practices  existing 
in  their  day,  they  were  trying  to  introduce  new  and  better  ideas;  at 
other  times,  as  allies  of  the  priesthood,  they  were  strivmg  to  awaken  the 
zeal  of  the  nation  in  behalf  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  In  either  case 
their  writings  contain  much  that  is  of  value  in  a  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Israel's  ideas  concerning  worship. 

§  58.  The  Priest  Code,  Manifestly,  Is  the  Great  Source  of  Informa- 
tion upon  the  subject  of  worship,  because  (a)  it  contains  the  fullest 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  63 

presentation  of  each  subject;  (d)  it  is  from  the  hands  of  the  priests 
themselves,  who  were  most  deeply  interested ;  and  (c)  it  presents  the 
latest  stage  of  growth.  But  this  Priest  Code  is  itself  a  growth,  and 
contains  at  least  four  strata  of  material,  each  of  which  represents  a 
different  age  and  stage  of  development.     These  are : 

1.  The  Holiness  Code,  contained  in  Lev.,  chaps.  17-26,  a  body  of 
laws  which,  as  the  name  implies,  lays  especial  emphasis  upon  the 
thought  of  the  holiness  of  God  and  the  necessity  of  corresponding 
holiness  on  the  part  of  his  people, 

2.  A  collection  of  priestly  teachings  in  reference  to  various  sacri- 
ficial and  ritualistic  matters. 

3.  A  set  of  miscellaneous  materials,  such  as  genealogical  lists, 
elaborations  of  laws,  and  illustrative  narratives. 

4.  A  historical  narrative  from  the  creation  up  to  the  settlement  in 
Canaan,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  P  document,  the  three  preceding 
elements  having  been  incorporated  into  it. 

See  Driver,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  6th  ed.,  pp 
126-59;  Addis,  The  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II,  pp.  169-91 ;  J.  E.  Car- 
penter AND  G.  Harford-Battersby,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  121-57. 

§  59.  The  Priest  of  Early  Times,  that  is,  as  described  in  {ci')  the 
Covenant  Code ;  {V)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E  ;  {c)  the  pre- 
Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings  ;  and  (^)  the 
pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances.' 

I.    The  only  allusion  in  the  Covenant  Code.^ 
Exod.  20 :  26. 

'  On  the  date,  character,  contents,  and  limits  of  these  various  documents  see 
Driver,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament;  also  J.  E.  Carpenter 
AND  G.  Harford-Battersby,  The  Hexateuch;  W.  E.  Addis,  The  Docuvients  of  the 
Hexateuch  ;  Briggs,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch  ;  HOLZINGER,  Einleitung 
in  den  Hexateuch;  Wellhausen  and  Cheyne,  article  "Hexateuch"  in  Encyclopcedia 
Biblica;  F.  H.  Woods,  article  "Hexateuch"  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
Kuenen,  An  Historico-Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  Hexateuch ;  ^^I'EiA.- 
YlAVSi^n,  Prolegotnena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  228-391;  Steuernagel,  Allgemeine 
Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  {^Handkommentar  zu?n  Alt.  Test.,  I.  Abtheilung,  3.  Band, 
pp.  249-86) ;  W.  R.  Harper  and  W.  H.  Green,  "The  Pentateuchal  Question,"  in 
Hebraica,Vo\.'V,  pp.  18-73,  137-89,  243-91  ;  Vol.  VI,  pp.  I-48,  109-38,  161-211 
241-95;  Vol.  VII,  pp.  1-38,  104-42;  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  15-64,  174-243. 

For  a  discussion  of  these  questions  from  a  different  point  of  view  see  especially 
W.  H.  Green,  The  Hebrew  Feasts;  cf  also  Bissell,  The  Pentateuch,  Its  Origin  and 
Structure;  W.  H.  Green,  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Moses  and  the 
Prophets. 

*  The  following  references  are  from  the  J  document :  Gen.  8  :  20  f.;  12:8;  22 :  13 
Exod.  33:7-11;  19:22;  32:25-29;  4  :  14-17  ;  32:1  ff.;  and  the  following  from  the  E 
document :  Exod.  20  :  26  ;  24  :  4-S  ;  Deut.  33  :  8-1 1 ;   10:6;  Josh.  24  :  33. 


64  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

2.  Non-priests  frequently  do  priestly  work. 

Gen.  8  :  2of.;  12:8;  22  :  13  ;  Exod.  33:7-11  ;  24  :  4-8  ;  Judg.  13:  19; 
I  Sam.  7:1;  13  :8-i4  ;  2  Sam.  6: 14-18  ;   i  Kings  18  130-38. 

3.  The  story  of  Micah's  priest. 
Judg.,  chaps.  17  and  18. 

4.  The  consecration  of  the  priest. 

Exod.  19:22  ;  Judg.  17:5,12;   i  Sam.  7:1. 

5.  The  service  rendered  by  the  priest. 

I  Sam.  4:4;  7:1;   I  Kings  i  :  34  ;  i  Sam.  21  : 1-9  ;  Hos.  4:6;  Mic. 
3:11;  Isa.  28  :7. 

6.  Priests  were  consulted  as  soothsayers. 
Judg.  18:5,  6;    I  Sam.  23  :  6^13  ;    30:72. 

7.  The  tribe  of  Levi. 

Exod.  32  :  25-29  ;    Deut.  33  :  8-1 1. 

8.  Aaron  and  his  descendants. 

Exod.  4  :  14-17  ;    32  :  1  ff.;    Deut.  10:6;    Josh.  24:33. 

9.  The  sons  of  Eli  and  their  behavior. 

I  Sam.  1:3;    2:22-25;    4:4;    I  Kings  2: 27. 

10.  Elijah  and  the  priests  of  Baal. 
I  Kings  18 : 19-40. 

11.  The  prophets'  estimate  of  the  priest. 

Hos.  4  :  6-9  ;    5:1;    6:9;    Amos  7  :  10-17;    Mic.  3:11;    Isa.  28  :  7 

12.  The  priest's  dress  and  equipment. 

1  Sam. 2:18;   Judg.i7:5;    18:14,20;    i  Sam.  23  :6,  9-12  ;    30:7,8. 

13.  The  priest's  maintenance. 

Judg.  17:10;    18:4;    I  Sam.  2  :  12-17  ;    2  Kings  12:16. 

14.  The  high-priest. 

2  Kings  12  :  10  (?). 

§  60.    Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  lack  of  any  reference  to  priest  in 
the  Covenant  Code  (see  §  15,  (2))? 

2.  What  connection  is  there  between  this  lack  of  reference  and  the 
fact  that  laymen  in  early  times  acted  as  their  own  priests  ?  Is  there 
evidence  that  in  cases  where  non-priests  offered  sacrifice  they  were  doing 
so  («)  through  regularly  appointed  priests,  or  (/5)  by  special  divine 
authority  ? 

3.  Consider  from  the  story  of  Micah's  priest  {a)  the  character  of 
the  times,  {b)  the  existence  of  idolatry,  {c)  the  place  of  the  priest 
('/.§i6,(2)). 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  65 

4.  How  early  and  in  what  way  were  priests  set  apart  or  consecrated  ? 

5.  Formulate  a  list  of  the  various  functions  performed  by  the  priest 
in  those  days. 

6.  To  what  extent  did  people  consult  the  priest  about  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  life  ?     Cf.  the  case  of  Samuel  (i  Sam.  9  : 6  ff.,  19  f.). 

7.  With  what  events  and  in  what  connection  do  the  references  to 
the  tribe  of  Levi  in  this  period  appear  ? 

8.  Trace  the  line  of  Aaron  as  it  is  indicated  down  to  later  times. 
What,  according  to  the  tradition,  was  Aaron's  official  relation  to  Moses  ? 

9.  From  the  story  of  Eli's  sons,  point  out  (a)  the  basis  of  their 
right  to  be  priests,  {b)  their  functions  as  priests,  {c)  the  various  ways  in 
which  they  abused  their  office. 

10.  Consider,  in  the  story  of  Elijah  and  the  priest-prophets  of 
Baal,  {a)  the  significance  of  the  large  number  of  prophets  of  Baal,  {b) 
the  non-priestly  character  of  Elijah. 

11.  Enumerate,  one  by  one,  the  shortcomings  of  the  priests  which 
are  criticised  by  the  prophets,  and  consider  whether  this  state  of  things 
owed  its  existence  {a)  to  a  growing  formality  and  emptiness  of  the 
Israelitish  religion,  or  {b)  to  the  influence  exerted  on  the  Israelitish 
religion  by  the  neighboring  religion,  which  was  very  sensual  in  its 
character,  or  {c)  to  the  fact  that  now  for  the  first  time  the  prophets  are 
holding  up  these  high  ideals,  the  priest-practice  in  Israel,  as  among 
other  nations,  having  always  been  upon  a  low  plane. 

12.  Consider  the  references  to  the  priests'  dress  and  equipment, 
and  explain  particularly  the  ephod,  the  Urim,  and  Thummim.^ 

13.  What  evidence  is  there  that  the  priest  in  this  period  had  any 
special  perquisites  or  any  regular  maintenance  ? 

14.  How  much  may  fairly  be  inferred  as  to  the  functions  and 
authority  of  the  high-priest  in  this  period  ? 

3  See  the  article  "  Ephod,"  by  G.  F.  Moore,  in  Encydopcedia  BiblUa;  the  article 
"Ephod,"  by  S.  R.  Driver,  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  van  Hoonacker, 
Le  Sacerdoce  levitiqite,  pp.  370  ff.;  Konig,  Religious  History  of  Israel,  pp.  107  ff.;  G.  F. 
Moore, /«(/^«,  p.  381 ;  Konig,  Hauptproble7ne,  pp.  59-63;  Foote,  "The  Biblical 
Ephod,"  in  Johns  Hopkins  University  Cirailars,  May,  1900.  On  "Urim  and  Thum- 
mim"  see  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  {iSgT;);  Kirkpatrick,  The  First  Book  of 
Samuel {C3,mhndgQ  Bible  Series),  pp.  217  f.;  Kalisch,  Exodus,  p.  544;  Wellhau- 
SEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp.  394  f.;  W.  R.  Smith,  The  Old  Testament 
in  the  Jewish  Church,  2d  ed.,  p.  292,  note  i;  T.  Witton  T>p,vi-e.s,  Magic,  Divina- 
tion and  Demonology,  p.  75;  Ryle,  Ezra  and  Mehemiah  (Cambridge  Bible  Series), 
p.  33  ;  NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie,  Vol.  II,  pp.  93  f.;  Benzinger, 
Hebrdische  Archdologie,  pp.  382,  407  f.;  Baudissin,  Die  Geschichte  des  alttestament- 
lichen  Priesterthu?ns  untersucht,  pp.  26  f.;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Vulkes  Israel,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  156,  471-3,  505  f.,  5171. 


66  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§6i.  Constructive  Work. —  Upon  the  basis  of  the  material  consid- 
ered, write  a  paper  on  "The  Priest  in  Early  Israelitish  History," 
observing  the  following  suggestions:  (i)  include  only  what  can  be 
corroborated  by  references  to  the  literature  of  this  period  (see  above); 
(2)  use  great  caution  in  making  general  statements  upon  the  basis  of 
few  facts  ;  (3)  remember  that  much  may  be  gained  by  ascertaining  what 
did  not  exist. 

§62.  The  Priest  of  the  Deuteronomic  Period,  that  is,  as  described  {a) 
in  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  {b)  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  and  {c)  by  the  prophets  of  the  Deuter- 
onomic period/ 

1.  The  Levites,  that  is,  the  priests,  become  a  distinct  class. 

Deut.  10:8;   18  : 1  ;    i  Sam.  2  :  28  ;  Jer.  i  :  18;    8:1;   13:13;  23  :  33  f.; 
26  :  7  f.,  II,  16  ;  28  :  I,  5  ;  33  :  21  ;  34  :  19. 

2.  The  service  rendered  by  "the  priests  the  Levites." 

Deut.  10  :8  ;  21  :  5  ;    33:8-10;    26  :  3  ff .  ;    27:14;    17:18;   31:9;   17:8, 
9,  12  ;  19 : 17  ;  20 : 2  ;  24 : 8  ;  Jer.  18 :  18. 

3.  The  prophets'  estimate  of  the  priest. 

Jer.  2:8;  5:31  ;  6:13;   14:18;  23  :  11  ;  32:32;  Zeph.  3:4. 

4.  A  later  view  of  the  wickedness  of  Eli's  sons. 

1  Sam.  2  :  27-36. 

5.  The  relative  authority  of  priest  and  prophet. 
Jer.  29:  25  f.;   5  :  31  ;  20  :  I  ff.  ;    11:  18-23  \  </•  i  :  i- 

6.  Differences  of  rank  within  the  priestly  order. 

2  Kings  23  :  4,  8,  9  ;  Jer.  52:24;  29  :  25  f .;   19:1;  Deut.  18  : 6  f. 

7.  Maintenance  of  "the  priests  the  Levites." 
Deut.  10:9;  12:12;  18:1-8;  14:27,29. 

8.  Residence  of  priests. 

Deut.  18  :  6,  7  ;  Jer.  i :  i  ;  </.  11  :  21,  22  ;  32  :  6  ff.;  Jer.  29  :  i . 

9.  Priests  consulted  as  soothsayers. 
Deut.  33  :  8. 

§63.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

I.  Consider  the  circumstances  which,  ordinarily,  would  encourage 
the  building  up  of  a  special  priest  class.  What  connection  existed 
between  the  centralization  of  worship  in  Jerusalem  (§27,  (2) ;  cf.  Deut., 
chap.  12)  and  the  growth  of  a  special  class  of  priests?  What  is 
implied  in   the  constantly  recurring  phrase  "  the  priests  the  Levites" 

'»  References  printed  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in 
Deuteronomy. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  6/ 

{cf.   Deut.  17:18;  i8:i;2i:5;27:9;3i:9)?     Does  it  mean  {cf.  Deut. 
10  :  8)  that  all  priests  were  Levites  and  all  Levites  priests  ? 

2.  Formulate  the  different  functions  which  together  made  up  the 
service  of  "  the  priest  the  Levite,"  distinguishing  between  regular  and 
special  functions.  Consider  the  difference  between  the  work  of  the 
prophet,  the  wise  (man),  and  the  priest  (Deut.  18  :  18;  Jer.  18  :  iS). 

3.  What,  according  to  the  prophets,  is  the  priest's  attitude  toward 
Jehovah  and  the  true  religion  ? 

4.  Compare  the  later  view  (i  Sam.  2  :  27-46)  of  the  wickedness  of 
Eli's  sons  with  the  former  (i  Sam.  2  :  12-17,  22-25),  note  the  points  of 
change,  and  consider  to  what  extent  this  is  in  harmony  with  Deuter- 
onomic  representations. 

5.  Recall  the  authority  of  the  prophet  {a)  in  the  days  of  Saul, 
David,  Solomon  ;  {f)  in  the  days  of  Elijah  and  Isaiah  ;  and  {c)  consider 
to  what  extent,  in  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  the  prophet  had  lost  authority, 
while  the  priest  had  gained  it. 

6.  Indicate  the  extent  to  which  differences  of  rank  had  come  to 
exist  among  the  priests,  and  the  significance  of  this  fact. 

7.  Enumerate  very  accurately  the  sources  of  income  and  main- 
tenance which  were  enjoyed  by  "  the  priests  the  Levites." 

8.  Were  there  special  places  of  residence  assigned  to  "  the  priests 
the  Levites"?     Did  priests  own  property? 

g.  Is  there  anything  additional  to  be  said  about  the  use  of  Urim 
and  Thummim  ? 

§64.  Constructive  "Work.  —  Upon  the  basis  of  the  material  consid- 
ered, write  a  paper  on  "The  Priest  in  the  Middle  Period  of  Israelitish 
History"  —  that  is,  the  so-called  Deuteronomic  period  —  discussing  par- 
ticularly {a)  the  class  system,  (I))  the  higher  position  now  occupied, 
{c)  the  functions,  (d)  the  maintenance  provided  by  law. 

§65.  The  Priest  as  Described  by  Ezekiel. 

1.  Ezekiel  himself  was  a  priest. 
Ezek.  1:3;  4:14. 

2.  Priesthood  was  limited  to  the  sons  of  Zadok. 

Ezek.  44  :  15  f.;  40  :  46  ;  43  :  iq,  24-27  ;  44  :6-3i  ;  48  :  1 1. 

3.  The  priest's  dress. 
Ezek.  42 :  14  ;  44 : 17-19. 

4.  Special  "holiness"  was  required  of  priests. 
Ezek.  4:14;  44  :  20-22,  25-27,  31. 

5.  Service  rendered  by  priests. 

Ezek.  44  :  II,  14,  15,  16,  23  f.  ;  40  :  46  ;  43  :  21,  24,  27. 


68  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

6.  Residence  of  priests. 

Ezek.  48  :  10-14  ;  42:i3f.;  46:19-24. 

7.  Maintenance  of  priests. 
Ezek.  42  :  13  f.;  44  :  28-30. 

§66.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  Ezekiel,  and  also  Jere- 
miah, Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi  —  all  the  later  prophets  —  were 
priests.  Note  that  Ezekiel  preached  his  visions  of  Israel's  glorious 
future  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Consider  the  circumstances  which 
led  him  to  foresee  and  proclaim  a  system  so  exclusively  ecclesiastical. 

2.  What  limitation  of  the  priesthood  does  he  introduce,  and  why? 
In  what  respect  is  this  an  advance  upon  the  Deuteronomic  usage  ? 

3.  Consider  the  regulations  made  concerning  the  priest's  dress; 
what  was  their  purpose  ? 

4.  Enumerate  the  particular  requirements  made  of  the  priests  which 
were  intended  to  mark  their  holiness,  and  show,  in  each  case,  how  this 
was  to  be  secured.     In  what  sense  is  the  word  "  holy  "  to  be  understood  ? 

5.  Indicate  in  what  particulars  the  service  required  of  the  priest  in 
Ezekiel's  code  differs  from  that  of  the  Deuteronomic  Code  (§62,  (2)  ); 
and  show  the  principles  underlying  these  changes. 

6.  What  was  to  be  the  place  of  the  priests'  residence,  and  its 
extent  ?     The  meaning  of  the  word  "  oblation  "  ? 

7.  Prepare  in  detail  a  list  of  the  items  mentioned  which  should 
serve  as  the  maintenance  of  the  priest.  Is  there  any  variation  from 
those  mentioned  in  Deuteronomy  ? 

§67.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  paper  showing  how  the  priest, 
as  seen  in  Ezekiel's  vision,  differed  from  the  priest  of  the  Deutero- 
nomic times. 

§  68.  The  Priest  of  the  Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described  {a)  in  the 
laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,  (b)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and  {c)  in  the 
priestly  histories,  e.  g.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles.^ 

1.  Distinction  between  priests  and  Levites  everywhere  presupposed. 
Numb.  4: 1-15,  19;  8:14-26;  18:1-7;  iT^Jt-ii;  25:10-13;  l  Chron. 
6:49-53- 

2.  Special  holiness  required  of  priestly  class. 
Lev.  21 : 1-9,  17-23;    22:1-8;    10:6;    Exod.  30:19. 

3.  Service  rendered  by  priests. 

Lev.  10:  8-11;  Numb.  4  :4-i4, 16;  Lev.  16  :32;  6:20-22;  Hag.  2  :  i  1-13; 
Mai.  2  :4-7;  Numb.  18: 1-7;    27  :  21 ;  2  Chron.  19:8,  11. 
s  References  to  the  Levitical  Code  are  in  bold-face  type. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  69 

4.  Service  rendered  by  Levites. 

Numb.  4:1-3,  15,  21-33;  2:17;  3:23-26,  29-32,  35-38;  18:1-7; 
3:5-10;  Ezra6:2o;  Neh.  1 1  :  15-18,  22  ;  i  Chron.6  :  31-48;  15:2; 
23  :  27-32  ;  26:20-32;  2  Chron,  5  :  4f-;   19:8,  11. 

5.  Influence  and  numbers  of  priestly  class. 

Lev.  16:32;  Numb.  4:19,  271.  33;  3- 1-4;  4  =  34-49;  35  =  25-34;  Hag. 
1:1,12,14;  Zech.  3:1-10;  6:9£f.  (?);  Ezra  1:5;  2:61-63,70; 
3:2,  8-13;  5:2;  6:16;  T."],  13,  16;  8:15-20,  29  f.;  Neh. 
11:15-18,22;  12:1-26;  3:20,22,28;  5:12;  I  Chron.  6 :  1-47  ; 
9 :  10-34  ;    23: 1-24. 

6.  Place  and  work  of  the  high-priest. 

Numb.  35  :  25-34  ;  Lev.  16  : 4-32  ;  6  :  22  ;  Exod.  29  :  9  ;  Numb.  27  :  21 ; 
Zech.  3  :  i-io  ;  6  :  9  £f .  (?);  Neh.  13:4,  28-30. 

7.  Consecration  of  high-priest. 

Lev.  21 :  10-15  ;  6  :  20-22  ;  8:12,  14-36  ;  Exod.,  chap.  29  ;  Lev.,  chap. 
9  ;  Numb.  20  :  23-29. 

8.  Dress  of  priests. 

Neh.  7  :  70-73  ;  Lev.  6  :  10  1;  8  : 1-9,  13,  30  ;  Exod.,  chap.  28;  39  : 1-31  ; 
40 :  13  f  • 

9.  Residence  of  priests. 

I  Chron.  6:54-81;  Josh.  21:1-42;  Numb.  35=2-8;  Neh.  11:3; 
Numb.  2:17;  3  :  23-26,  29-32,  35-38. 

10.  Maintenance  of  priests. 

Lev.  22  : 4-7  ;    7  :  35  ;    Numb.  3  :  46-48  ;    Ezra  7:24;    Neh.  1 2  :  44-47 
13  :  10-14. 

11.  Courses  of  priests  and  Levites. 

Ezra  6:  18;    i  Chron.  24  :  1—26  :  19  ;    2  Chron.  5  :  11  f.;  8  :  12-15. 

12.  Prophets'  estimate  of  the  priests. 

Hag.  2: 11-13  ;  Zech.  3:  i-io  ;  6:9  £f.;  Mai.  i  :6-io;  2:4-9;  3  =  3  : 
Isa.  61 :6  ;  66:21  ;  Joel  1:9,  13  ;  2:17. 

§  69.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Is  it  possible  to  find  anywhere  in  the  post-exilic  literature  a 
passage  in  which  the  words  "priest"  and  "Levite"  are  synonymous? 
Cf.  Deut.  (§62,  (i)),  and  consider  (a;)  the  circumstances  which  have 
led  to  this  differentiation,  (b)  its  significance,  and  ic)  the  great  change 
which  has  taken  place  since  the  time  when  everyone  might  be  his  own 
priest(r/.  §§58,  (2);   15,(2)). 

2.  What  special  limitations  were  imposed  upon  the  priests  (Aaron's 
sons)  to  secure  their  holiness  ? 

3.  Enumerate  carefully  the  kinds  of  service  expected  of  the  priests 


70  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(Aaron's  sons),  and  note  how  it  differs  from  that  required  in  Deuter- 
onomy of  "the  priests  the  Levites." 

4.  Enumerate  the  kinds  of  service  required  of  the  Levites,  and  note 
the  extent  to  which  this  service  was  in  older  times  the  work  of  "the 
priest  the  Levite." 

5.  What  are  the  facts  concerning  the  numbers  of  the  priestly  classes 
in  this  later  period  ?  Are  they  larger  or  smaller  ?  Is  their  influence 
greater  or  less  ?     What  is  the  full  significance  of  these  facts  ? 

6.  What  part  has  the  high-priest  played  in  the  priestly  work  of 
earlier  times  ?     What  is  his  place  and  work  at  this  time  ? 

7.  What  are  the  details  of  the  consecration  of  the  high-priest,  and 
their  interpretation  ? 

8.  Is  more  care  now  given  to  the  peculiar  dress  of  the  high-priest  ? 
If  so,  in  what  details,  and  for  what  reason  ? 

9.  What  special  places  are  set  apart  for  the  residence  of  priests  ? 
Consider  from  various  points  of  view  the  cities  of  refuge,  noting  espe- 
cially the  absence  of  any  reference  to  them  as  Levitical  cities  in  Deu- 
teronomy (19  :  1-13). 

10.  What  additions  appear  to  the  sources  of  income  of  the  priests 
and  Levites  ?  Can  the  priests  any  longer  be  classed  with  the  father- 
less and  widow  as  in  Deut.  14  :  28,  29  ? 

11.  What  is  to  be  understood  by  the  classification  of  the  priests 
and  Levites  into  courses  and  divisions? 

12.  How  did  the  prophet,  although  himself  a  priest,  estimate  the 
priests  of  his  times? 

§  70.  Constructive  Work. — Upon  the  basis  of  material  in  §69  write 
a  paper  on  the  priest  in  later  Israelitish  history,  noting  especially 
such  points  as  indicate  changes  in  comparison  with  preceding  periods. 

§71.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

Stanley,  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Jewish  Church,  Lecture  XXXVI  (1865); 
S.  I.  CuRTiss,  The  Levitical  Priests  (1877);  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the  History 
of  Israel  (1878),  pp.  121-51;  KuENEN,  National  Religions  and  Universal  Religions 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1882),  pp.  314-17;  Green,  Moses  and  the  Prophets  (1883),  pp. 
78-83,  127-31;  Kalisch,  Comtnentary  on  Leviticus,  Part  I,  pp.  559-659;  ScnuRER, 
History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  C7zrw/ (1886);  Second  Division,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  207-305;  W.  R,  Smith,  article  "Priest"  in  Encyclopcedia  Britannica  (1889); 
MoNTEFlORE,  77/1?  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1892),  pp. 
65-70,  1 16-18,  etc.;  ScHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  {iig2),  Bet  Index ;  Kittel, 
History  of  the  Hebrews  (1892),  see  Index;  E.  H.  Plumptre,  article  "Priest"  in 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  2d  ed.  (1892);  Driver,  Deuteronomy  (\r\.'iexv\z.Wovi^ 
Critical  Commentary,  1895),  see  Index;  Menzies,  History  of  Religion  (1895),  pp.  7°. 
183;  Briggs, //«g-/ii?r  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch  {\%<:)']),  ^.  104 ;  PiCK,  "  The  Jewish 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  7 1 

High  Priests  Subsequent  to  the  Return  from  Babylon,"  in  Lutheran  Church  Review, 
1898,  pp.  127-42,  370-75,  655-64;  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
(1898),  see  Index;  Toy,  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  (Polychrome  Bible,  1899), 
pp.  193  f.;  W.  R.  Harper,  "The  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament  as  Seen  in 
the  Laws,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XIV  (1899),  pp.  258-66 ;  Duff,  Old  Testament  The- 
ology (1891-1900),  see  Index;  G.  A.  Cooke,  article  "Levi"  in  Hastings'  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible  (1900);  McCurdy,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments  (1895-1901), 
see  Index;  Walker,  "The  Levitical  Priesthood,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature, 
1900,  pp.  124-37  ;  Berlin,  "Notes  on  Genealogies  of  the  Tribe  of  Levi  in  i  Chron. 
23-26,"  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  Vol.  XII  (1900),  pp.  291-8;  Laidlaw,  "The  Priest 
and  the  Prophet,"  Expository  Times,  1900;  H.  M.  Chadwicke,  "Ancient  Teutonic 
Priesthood,"  Folk-Lore,Vo\.  XI  (1900),  pp.  268-309;  Adams,  The  Mosaic  Tabernacle: 
Studies  in  the  Priesthood  and  the  Sanctuary  of  the  Jews  (1901). 

Graf,  "  Zur  Geschichte  des  Stammes  Levi,"  in  Merx,  Archiv  fiir  wissenschaft- 
liche  Erforschung  des  Alten  Testamentes,  Vol.  I  (1867),  pp.  68-106,  208-36  ;  Maybaum, 
Die  Entwicklung  des  altisraelitischen  Priesterthums  (1880);  ^UKUV),  Der  Prophet 
Ezechiel  (1880),  pp.  360-62;  Kittel,  "Die  Priester  und  Leviten,"  in  Theologische 
Studien  aus  lViirtetnberg,Yo\.  II  (1881),  pp.  147-69;  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  278-314;  Kuenen, 
Historisch-kritische  Einleittmg  in  die  Biicher  des  Alten  Testaments  (i^^S),Wo\.  I,  pp. 
281  ff.;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (1887),  Vol.  I,  pp.  152  ff.,  468  £f.;  Baudis- 
SIN,  Die  Geschichte  des  alttestamentlichen  Priesterthuins  (1889);  H.  Vogelstein, 
Der  Kampf  zwischen  Priestern  und  Leviten  seit  den  Tagen  Ezechiels.  Eine  hisiorisch 
kritische  Untersuchung  (1889);  KuENEN,  "Die  Geschichte  des  Jahwepriesterthums 
und  das  Alter  des  Priestergesetzes  "  (1889),  in  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen,-p-p.  ^b^- 
500;  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d 
ed.  1899),  see  Index;  Benzinger,  Hebrdische  Archdologie  (1894),  pp.  405-28; 
NOWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894),  Vol.  II,  pp.  87-130 ;  Marti, 
Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion  (1897),  pp.  44  ff.,  50,72,  etc  H.  Boury,  Z^j 
Pre tres d' Israel {i?>g?,) ;  Hummelauer,  Das  vormosaische Priesterthutn  in  Israelii 899); 
VAN  HooNACKER,  Le  Sacerdoce  levitique  (1899),  ^"d  "  Les  Pretres  et  les  Ldvites  dans 
le  livre  d'Ezekiel,"  Revue  bibligue,  1899,  pp.  177-205. 

See  also  the  commentaries  of  Delitzsch,  Dillmann,  Holzinger,  and  Gunkel  on 
Genesis ;  of  Dillmann,  Holzinger,  and  Baentzsch  on  Exodus ;  of  Dillmann  and 
Baentsch  on  Leviticus;  of  Steuernagel  and  Bertholet  on  Deuteronomy;  and  of 
Davidson,  Bertholet,  and  Kraetzschmar  on  Ezekiel. 

§72.     Supplementary  Topics . 

1.  Consider  that  the  Psalter  was  the  songbook  of  the  temple,  and 
from  an  examination  of  Pss.  78  :  64  ;  99  :  6  ;  105  :  26  ;  106  :  16,  30  f. ; 
no:  4;  115  :io,  12;  118:3;  132:9.16;  133:2;  134:1-3;  135:19^ 
formulate  the  thought  relating  to  the/r/^j-/ which  is  found  in  the  Psalter. 

2.  Why  do  no  direct  references  to  the  work  and  life  of  the.  priest 
occur  in  the  Wisdom  Literature,  /.  e.,  in  Job,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes, 
and  Song  of  Songs  ? 

3.  Consider  briefly  the  subject  of  the  priest  in  New  Testament 
writings,  ^.  ^.,  Matt.  2:4;8:4;  12:4  f. ;  16:21;  20:  18;  21:15;  26  :3; 
27:1;    Mark  2  :  26  ;    Luke    i  :  5,  8,  9  ;    10:31;    17:14;    John   i  :  19; 


72  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Acts  4  :  1,  36  ;  6:7;  Heb.  2:17;  3:1;  4  :  14  f. ;  5  :  i,  5  f.,  10  ;  6  :  20  ; 
chap.  7;  8:i,3f.;  9:6  f., 11, 25;  10:11,21;  13:11;  i  Peter  2  :  5,  9  ; 
Rev.  1:6;  5:10;  20  :  6  ;  etc.,  and  indicate  such  points  of  difference, 
as  compared  with  the  position  and  work  of  the  priest  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  seem  most  important. 

4.  Compare  roughly  the  place  of  the  priest  among  the  Egyptians, 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  and  note  points  of  similarity  and  differ- 
ence as  compared  with  that  of  the  priest  among  the  Hebrews. 

See  W.  R.  Smith,  article  "  Priest"  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica  ;  the  articles 
"  Pontifex"  and  "  Sacerdos "  in  Harper's  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and 
Antiquities;   Martha,  Les  Sacerdoces  atheniens. 

5.  Consider  the  original  meaning  and  exact  usage  of  the  words 
for  priest,  in  Hebrew  "IJlS, Greek  i(.pvo^,'L,2X\Xi  sacerdos. 

Cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  article  "Priest "  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  746  ;  Nowack, 
Hebr.  Arch.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  89  f. ;  Wellhausen,  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  130  f. 

6.  Consider  the  place  of  the  priest  among  the  Assyrians,  the  Arabs, 
and  the  Canaanites,  who  were  closely  related  Semitic  nations,  and  note 
points  of  similarity  and  difference  as  compared  with  his  place  among 
the  Hebrews. 

See  especially  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  {Index) ;  W.  R.  Smith, 
Religion  of  the  Semites  {Index);  McCurdy,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments 
{Index) ;  Haupt,  "  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitic  Ritual,"  Journal  of  Biblical 
Literature,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  55-81  ;  Sayce,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life  and  Cus- 
toms, pp.  249  ff.;  L.  W.  King,  Babylonian  Religion  and  Mythology,  pp.  210  ff. 

7.  Consider  the  conception  which  existed  among  the  Israelites  that 
their  nation  was  a  kingdom  of  priests  {cf.  Exod.  19:6),  the  basis  of  this 
conception,  the  extent  to  which  it  was  held,  the  influence  which  it 
exerted,  and  its  connection  with  other  Israelitish  ideas,  e.  g.,  with  the 
idea  of  God,  with  the  idea  of  the  Day  of  Jehovah,  and  with  their  con- 
ception of  their  relation  to  the  world. 

8.  Consider,  in  general,  what  may  be  called  the  outside  fu fictions  of 
the  priest,/.*?.,  those  functions  which  were  not  distinctly  priestly;  e.g., 
his  place  in  war,  Deut.  20:2;  Numb.  10:1-9;  i  Sam.  4:4,  11;  in 
education,  Lev.  10:  11;  Neh.  8  :  2,  9,  13;  in  administration  of  justice, 
Deut.  17  :  8  f.,  12  ;  19  :  17  ;  21  :  5  ;  in  prophecy,  Deut.  33  :  8 ;  Jer.  1:1; 
Ezek.  1:3;  4:14. 

9.  From  a  study  of  the  books  of  Maccabees  prepare  a  statement 
showing  what  were  the  place,  the  function,  the  character,  the  influence, 
the  dress,  the  place  of  residence,  and  the  maintenance  of  ihe  priesthood 
about  165  B.  C. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PRIEST  73 

See,  ^.  i^.,  I  Mace,  chap.  2  ;  3  :  45-51  ;  4  :  38,  42  f.;  5  :  6  f.;  7  :  9,  14  £f.^ 
20-25,  33-38;  io:2of.,  32;  11:23-27,  57  f.;  12:5-23;  13:36  ff.,  42; 
14  :  20,  23,  27-49  ;  15  :  1  f.,  6,  21,  24  ;  16:  11  ff.,  24  ;  2  Mace,  i  ;  15  ff.,  19-36  ; 
2:17;  3:1,  9,  15  f.,  21,  32-36;  4:7ff-.  24,  29;    11:3;   14  :  3.  7.  13  ;   15  :  12. 

10.  Take  up  more  seriously  the  general  relation  of  the  priest  to 
the  prophet ;  e.  g.,  (a)  Was  there  an  early  time  and  a  later  time  when 
the  two  offices  were  not  clearly  distinguished  ?  (^)  What  were  the 
circumstances,  in  each  case,  which  led  to  this  lack  of  distinction  ? 
(c)  How  far  may  the  priest  be  said  always  to  have  been  engaged  in 
struggle  with  the  prophet  ?  (d)  What  was  the  relation  of  each  to  the 
other  (i)  in  order  of  time,  (2)  in  order  of  thought  ? 

11.  Consider  the  significance  of  the  priest  as  a  mediator  between 
God  and  the  people.  What  influences  led  to  the  idea  that  this  class 
of  men  could  obtain  access  to  God  more  readily  than  other  men  ? 
What  was  the  relation  between  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  priestly  medi- 
ation and  the  acceptance  of  larger  ideas  of  God  ? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE    LAWS  AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PLACE    OF  WORSHIP,  CONSID- 
ERED   COMPARATIVELY. 

§73.  The  Place  of  Worship  in  the  Early  Period,  that  is,  as  described 
in  (a)  tlie  Covenant  Code,  (/;)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E,  (c) 
the  pre-Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  and(^ 
the  pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §  59,  note  i). 

1.  The  only  reference  in  the  Covenant  Code.' 
Exod.  20  :24ff. 

2.  The  patriarchs  had  sanctuaries  in  various  places,  according  to 
convenience. 

Gen.  8:20;  12:6-8;  13:18;  26:24  i.;  28:17,  22;  35:14;  Judg. 
20  :  18,  26  ff.;  21  :  4. 

3.  A  tent  of  meeting  was  used  as  the  place  for  seeking  God. 
Exod.  33  :  7-1 1 ;  Numb.  II  :  16  f.,  24  £.;   12:4-10;   i    Kings  2  :  28-30. 

4.  There  was  a  chest  or  ark  which  contained  articles  emblematic 
of  the  divine  presence. 

Numb.  10  :  33-36  ;  Josh.,  chap.  3  ;  Judg.  20  :  27. 

5.  There  were  local  shrines,  at  which  offerings  were  made. 

Exod.  3:  i;  20  : 24;  Numb.  23:1-6,  14-17  ;  Judg.  6  :  18-26  ;  13:15- 
23  ;  20  ;  18,  26  ff.;  21:4;  i  Sam.  i :  3,  21 ;  2:14;  3  :  1-21  ,  10:8; 
14  :  35  ;    I  Kings  3:4;   18  :  30-38  ;  Deut.  27  :  5-7. 

6.  In  course  of  time  a  temple  was  built  for  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 
2  Sam.  7:1-7;  24:21-25;  I  Kings  6:1-38;  2  Kings  12:4-16; 
15:35^/  18:  15  f. 

7.  The  altar  was  used  as  a  place  of  refuge,  and  as  such  was  sacred. 
I  Kings  2  :  28-30. 

8.  The  prophets  make  reference  to  places  of  worship. 

Amos  2:8;3:i4;4:4;  5:5;  7:9,  13;  8:14;  9:1;  Isa.  i:  12  ;  6:  i,  4; 
8:14;   Hos.  4  :i3,  15;  8:1;  9:  4,  8,  15;   10:  8;   12:  ii;  Mic.  3  :  12. 
§74.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

I.  Consider,  in  reference  to  Exod.  20:  24-26,  (a)  the  meaning  of 
the  emphasis  laid  on  ear//i  as  the  material  for  the  altar;  {d)  the  reason 
'The  following  are  J-references:  Gen.  8:20;  12:6-8;  13:18;  26:24!.;  35:14; 
Exod.  33:  7-11  (?);  Numb,  ii:  16  f.,24  f.;  Josh.,  chap.  3  (in  the  main);  Numb.  23:  1-6, 
14-17  (?).  The  following  are  E-references  :  Gen.  28:17,  24;  Exod.  20:24£f.;  Numb. 
12:4-10;   10:33-36;  Exod.3:i;  Deut.  27:5-7. 

74 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  PLACE  OF  WORSHIP   75 

for  objection  to  stone  as  a  material ;  (c)  the  reason  for  objection  to 
steps ;  and  [d)  the  general  primitive  character  of  the  whole  regulation. 

(C/.§i5.) 

2.  What  connection  was  there  between  this  primitive  form  of  the 
altar  and  the  custom  of  the  patriarchs  to  build  an  altar  wherever  they 
pitched  their  tents  ?     (Cf.  §  15  (i)  .) 

3.  Consider  the  occasions  on  which  reference  is  made  to  the  tent 
of  meeting,  and  note  the  uses  made  of  it. 

4.  Was  the  use  made  of  the  ark  or  chest  one  which  elevated  Israel, 
or  one  which,  upon  the  whole,  encouraged  a  low  conception  of  God  ? 

5.  Was  there  anything  to  indicate  that  this  or  that  place  should 
be  used  as  a  shrine  or  place  of  worship  ?  Was  there  danger  that  in  the 
use  of  these  widely  scattered  shrines  corrupt  practices  might  be  intro- 
duced ?     (C/:§i8(i).) 

6.  What  were  the  political  and  social  factors  that  were  connected 
with  the  building  of  the  temple  ?  What  immediate  effects  upon  wor- 
ship might  be  expected  to  follow  ?     {C/.  §  17  (i-)  (d)  .) 

7.  On  what  principle  did  the  use  of  the  altar  as  an  asylum  or  place 
of  refuge  rest  ?     Was  this  a  usage  among  other  nations  ?' 

8.  What  impression  does  one  gather  from  the  references  made  by 
the  prophets  to  places  of  worship  ? 

§  75.  Place  of  Worship  in  the  Middle  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in 
(a)  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  (d)  the  utterances  of  the  Deuteronomic 
prophets,  and  (c)  the  Deuteronomic  histories. 

1.  All  local  sanctuaries  are  prohibited.^ 

Deut.  12  :  2-4,  13,  17  ;  16  :  5  ;  2  Kings  23  :  1-20. 

2.  Jerusalem  is  the  only  authorized  place  for  worship. 

Deut.    12:5-8,   II,   12,    14,   18,  26 f.;    14:23-26;    15  :  19  f.;    16:2,  5-7, 
II,  15  f.;  26:2  ;    I  Kings  12  :  25 — 13  :  6  ;  21:7;  22  :  3-8. 

3.  The  temple  at  Jerusalem  becomes  the  supreme  court  of  justice. 
Deut.  17  :  8  ff. 

4.  The  ark  is  the  receptacle  of  the  two  stone  tables  of  the  law. 
Deut.  10:  1-5,  8. 

5.  The  prophets'  teaching  concerning  the  temple. 

Jer.  7  :  1-5,  lo-i  5  ;   12:7;    17  :  12,  26  ;   Zeph.  3:4;  Hab.  2  :  20. 
-  Cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  2d  ed.,  pp.  148  f.;  G.  F.  Moore,  article 
"Asylum"  in  Encydop(Edia  Bibhca;  J.  G.  Frazer.  "  The  Origin  of  Totemism  and 
Exogamy,"  Fortnightly  Review,  K-^rW,  1899;  Stengel,  article  "Asylon"  in  Realeh- 
cyclopddie  der  dassischen  Alterthumswissenschaft ;  Barth,  De  Asylis  Graccis. 

3  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuteron- 
omy. 


76  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

6.  The  destruction  of  Solomon's  temple. 

2  Kings  25  :q,  13-16. 
§  76.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  the  circumstances  which,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  led 
to  the  prohibition  of  local  sanctuaries.  What  was  to  be  gained  by  this 
revolution  in  practice  ?     {Cf.  §  28  (3).) 

2.  What  must  have  been  the  sociological  changes  which  followed 
the  centralization  of  worship  in  one  place,  e.  g.,  its  effect  on  commerce  ; 
on  the  general  intelligence  of  the  people ;  on  the  relative  position  of 
men  and  women  ;  on  habits  of  life  ?     {Cf.  §  28  (7).) 

3.  What  would  naturally  follow  such  a  change  of  practice  in  the 
relative  desirability  of  city  and  country  life,  and  what  would  be  the 
effect  upon  Jerusalem  as  the  center  of  political  and  judicial  life? 

4.  Consider  the  material  of  which  the  chest  was  made  and  the  use 
to  which  it  was  put. 

5.  Note  how  in  this  period  the  temple  had  fallen  into  disrepute  in 
the  opinion  of  the  prophets,  and  why  this  happened. 

6.  Consider  the  details  and  the  significance  of  the  destruction  of 
Solomon's  temple. 

§  77.  The  Place  of  Worship  in  Ezekiel. 

1.  There  is  evidence  of  the  existence  of  irregular  altars. 
Ezek.  6  :  3,  4.  6,  13. 

2.  The    temple    at   Jerusalem    is    represented    as   the  only   lawful 
sanctuary. 

Ezek,  20 :  40. 

3.  The  temple  is  desecrated  by  those  who  profane  its  use. 
Ezek.  8:3-18;  23:38  £.;  44:6-8. 

4.  Feeling  toward  those  who  took  part   in   the  destruction  of  the 
temple. 

Ezek.  25:3. 

5.  The  future  temple. 

Ezek.  37:26-28;  40:5  — 43:  17;  44:9;    45  =3;  46  :  1-3;  46:  19-24; 
48:8  f.,  21. 
§  78.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  the  fact  that  at  so  late  a  time  as  that  of  Ezekiel  there 
still  existed  irregular  altars,  and  what  was  involved  in  this  fact. 

2.  Note  Ezekiel's  statement  as  to  the  proper  place  of  worship  in 
the  future  {cf.  §  31  {a)). 

3.  What  were  the  prophet's  feelings  as  to  the  abuse  of  the  temple 
in  his  times  ? 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PLACE    OF    WORSHIP       7/ 

4.  Consider  the  relation  of  Ezekiel's  temple  {i.  e.,  the  temple  of 
his  vision)  to  that  of  Solomon,  {a)  architecturally,  {b)  in  the  promi- 
nence it  is  to  occupy  in  the  routine  of  worship. 

§  79.  The  Place  of  Worship  in  the  Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described 
{a)  in  the  laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,  {i>)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and 
{c)  in  the  priestly  histories,  e.  g.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Chronicles. 

1.  Worship  may  be  conducted  only  at  one  central  sanctuary.** 
Lev.  17:1-9;     Exod.  29  :  42-45 ;     2  Chron.  11:16;     Neh.  8:16;     cf. 
Isa.  ig  :  ig. 

2.  Ancient  sanctuaries  are  condemned. 

Lev.  26  :  27-31 ;  Josh.  22  :  g-34  ;  Isa.  27  :  g;  i  Chron.  21 :  28  f.;  2 
Chron.  i  :  1-5  ;    32  :  12  ;    33  :  17. 

3.  Description  of  the  tabernacle  and  its  furnishings. 

Exod.  25:8  —  27:19;  35:4  —  40:38;  Numb.  8:1-4;  Exod.  27  :  20  f.; 
Lev.  24:1-4;  Numb.  7:1-83. 

4.  Description  of  the  ark. 

Exod.  25  :  10-22  ;  37  : 1-9  ;  2  Chron.  i  :  1-5, 

5.  The  building  of  Solomon's  temple. 

1  Chron.  17 :  I  ff.;  2i:i5£f.;  21:28  f.;  22:6£f.;  23:iff.;  28:1-3 
1 1-2 1  ;   2  Chron.  2  :  1  —  5  :  i  ;    chaps.  6  and  7. 

6.  The  building  of  the  second  temple. 

Ezra  I  :2ff.;  2  :68  ;  3  :8-i3  :  5  :  2-5  ;  5  :6  £f.;  6  :  3  ff.,  14  £f.;   7  :  ig-23 

7.  A  later  view  of  the  place  of  the  tabernacle  in  religious  life. 
Numb.  9 :  15-23. 

8.  Later  views  of  the  place  of  Solomo.n's  temple  in  Israel's  wor- 
ship. 

2  Chron.  20  :  28  ;    24:4-15;    27:2f.;    chap.  2g. 

9.  The  sanctuary  as  the  place  of  God's  self-manifestation. 
Exod.  25  :  22  ;  2g  :  43  ;    Numb.  16:41  £f.;   Mai.  3:1;  Numb.  7  :89. 

10.  The  altar  of  burnt-offering. 

Lev.  1:10 ff.;    6:9-13;    Numb.  16:36-40;    7:84-88. 

11.  The  prophets'  attitude  toward  the  sanctuary. 

Isa.  56  :  7  ;  60  :  7  ;  Hag,  i  :  2-4,  7  £.;  2  :  3,  g  ;  Zech.  1:16;  4  :  g  ; 
6:12-15;  8:g;  I4:i6ff.;  Mai.  3  :  i  ;  Mic.  4  :  1-4  ;  Joel  i  :  g,  13  f. 
16  ;    Dan.  8:11;    g  :  17  ;    11:31. 

12.  Holiness  of  the  sanctuary. 

Lev.  26:2;  19:30;  8:iof.;  Numb.  3:31!. ;  4:4-15;  Neh.  6:10  f.; 
13  :  4  ff.;  2  Chron.  33  :  4.  7,  15  ;    36:17  ;    Dan.  8:11;  g:i7;    11:31. 

*  References  to  the  Levitical  Code  are  in  bold-face  type. 


78  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§  80.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

I.  Note  that  what  was  represented  as  a  matter  of  reform  in  the 
middle  period,  viz.,  the  restriction  of  worship  to  a  single  central 
sanctuary,  now  appears  as  a  fundamental  principle,  everywhere  taken  for 
granted. 

-     2.   Consider  the   attitude   of  writers   of   this  period  to    the  sanc- 
tuaries which  had  existed  in  earlier  times. 

3.  Note  (a)  the  great  detail  with  which  the  tabernacle  is  described; 
(d)  the  elaborate  character  of  the  tabernacle  from  an  artistic  point  of 
view  ;  and  consider  whether  this  description  is  to  be  taken  (i)  literally, 
a  tent  of  this  kind  having  actually  existed  in  the  earliest  times,  or  (2)  as  a 
piece  of  splendid  idealization,  similar  in  some  respects  to  Ezekiel's 
vision.     What  is  involved  in  each  of  these  propositions? 

4.  What,  in  general,  was  the  ark,  and  what,  in  particular,  was  the 
purpose  it  was  intended  to  serve? 

5.  Compare  the  references  in  Chronicles  to  the  building  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  with  those  in  Kings  (§73(6)),  and  classify  the  results  of 
the  comparison. 

6.  Consider  in  the  case  of  the  second  temple  (a)  the  date  of  its 
erection  ;  {^)  its  relative  size  and  character  in  comparison  with  the 
first  ;    (c)  the  special  circumstances  under  which  it  was  built. 

7.  What  was  the  later  view  of  the  place  of  the  tabernacle  in  Israel's 
religious  life,  as  seen  in  Numb.  9:  15-23? 

8.  Consider  later  views  also  as  to  the  place  of  Solomon's  temple  in 
Israel's  worship. 

9.  To  what  extent  was  Israel's  God  believed  to  use  the  sanctuary 
as  a  place  for  manifesting  his  presence? 

10.  What  was  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  and  its  peculiar  function? 

I I.  How  did  the  later  prophets  regard  the  sanctuary  and  its  service? 
12.  What  is  meant  by  the  holiness  of   the  sanctuary,  and  in  what 

did  this  consist  ? 

§  81.    Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

James  Fergusson,  article  "Temple  "  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1863) ; 
EWAI.D,  The  Antiquities  of  Israel  {t,A  ed.  1866,  transl.  1876),  pp.  1 17-30;  KuENEN, 
The  Religion  of  Israel  {i^bg  f.,  transl.  1874  f.),  Vol.  I,  pp.  96-100,  241  f.,  256-60,  305 
f.,  328  ff.,  334-9,  390-95  ;  Oehi.er,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1870,  transl.  1883),  pp. 
250-58;  EuERSHEiM,  The  Temple,  its  Ministry  and  Services  as  They  Existed  in  the 
Time  of  Jesus  Christ  (1874);  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (1874),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
" Sacred  Springs,  etc.;"  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel [li'j^), 
pp.  17-51;  CoNDER,  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  Statement,  1882,  pp.  75 
ff.;  W.  R.  Smith,  The  Prophets  of  Israel  (1st  ed.   1882,  2d  ed.  1895),  see  Index,  s.  v. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  PLACE  OF  WORSHIP   79 

"Sanctuaries;"  H.  P.  Smith,  "The  High  Place,"  The  Hebretv  Student,  1883,  pp. 
225-34  ;  CONDER,  Heth  and  Moab  (1883),  chaps,  vii,  viii ;  Perrot  AND  Chipiez,  His- 
tory of  Art  in  Phoenicia  (1885) ;  E.  C.  Robins,  The  Temple  of  Solomon  (1887);  Conder, 
Syrian  Stone  Zcr^  (1887),  pp.  42  f.,  70;  KiTTEL,  History  of  the  Heire7vs  {iS8S-g2, 
transl.  1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  High  Places,"  "  Temple  ;  "  Robertson,  Early  Religion 
of  Israel  {i%S()),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sanctuaries,"  "Tabernacle,"  "Temple,"  etc.;  W. 
R.  Smith,  article  "Temple"  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1889);  W.  R.  Smith, 
Religion  of  the  Semites  {isi  ed.  1889,  2d  ed.  1894),  PP-  140-212;  H.  Sully,  The  Tem- 
ple of  EzekieVs  Prophecy  (1889);  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  fudcea 
(1890) ;  J.  Pollard,  "On  the  Baal  and  Ashtoreth  Altar  Discovered  ....  in  Syria," 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archceology,  1891,  pp.  286  ff.;  Duff,  Old  Testa- 
ment Theology  (1891-1900),  see  Indexes,  s.  z*.  "  Altar,"  "Place,"  "  Sanctuary,"  etc.; 
ScHULTZ,  Old  Testametit  Theology  (1892),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Sanctuary,"  "  Tabernacle," 
"Temple,"  etc.;  C.  B Ahi^iNG,  /erusalew's  Temple  (1892);  Montefiore,  i?f/«^zo«  of 
the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1892),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  High  Places,"  "Temple  ;  "  J.  Strong, 
"The  Tabernacle,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  I  (1893),  pp.  270-77;  Menzies,  History 
of  Religion  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Temples  ;  "  McCurdy,  History,  Prophecy  and  the 
Monuments,  Vols.  I-HI  (1895-1901),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Temple  ;  "  Driver,  Deuteron- 
omy (1895),  pp.  xliii-li;  W.  G.  Moorehead,  Studies  in  the  Mosaic  histittitions  (1S96), 
pp.  31-90 ;  Trumbull,  The  Threshold  Covenant  {i8g6),  pp.  1-164;  Wiedemann, 
Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1897),  pp.  200-206;  H.  B.  Greene,  "  Hebrew 
Rock  Altars,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  IX  (1897),  pp.  329-40 ;  A.  BiJCHLER,  "The  Fore- 
Court  of  Women  and  the  Brass  Gate  in  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,"  Jewish  Quarterly 
Review,  1898,  pp.  678-718  ;  J.  A.  Seiss,  "The  Great  Temples  at  Baalbec,"  Lutheran 
Church  Review,  1898,  pp.  27 1-93  ;  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  ana  Assyria  (iSgS), 
see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Temples ; "  G.  C.  M.  Douglas,  "  Ezekiel's  Temple,"  Expository 
Times,  1898,  pp.  365  ff.,  420  ff.,  468  ff.,  S15-19;  A.  S.  Kennedy,  article  "Altar" 
in  Hastings' Z>?V^w«arj/  of  the  Bible  (1898);  C.  Schick,  "  Remarks  on  the  Taber- 
nacle Controversy,"  Palestine  Exploration  Eund  Quarterly  Statement,  1898,  pp.  241-3; 
Em.  Schmidt,  "Solomon's  Temple,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XIV  (1899),  pp.  164-71; 
A.  H.  Sayce,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life  and  Customs  (1899),  pp.  246  ff.;  W.  E. 
Addis,  article  "Altar"  in  Encyclopczdia  Biblica  (1899);  W.  C.  Allen,  article  "  High 
Place"  in  Yix^lVAGi^  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1899);  Benson  and  Gourlay,  The 
Temple  of  Mut  in  Asher,  etc.  (1899) ;  T.  F.  Wright,  "  Was  the  Tabernacle  Oriental  ?" 
Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  1899,  pp.  195-8;  Th.  G.  Soares,  "Ezekiel's  Temple," 
Biblical  World,  Yol.XlV  (1899),  pp.  93-103;  S.  I.  Curtiss,  "The  High  Place  and 
Altar  at  Petra,"  Palestine  Exploration  Eund  Quarterly  Statement,  1900,  pp.  351-5  ;  L. 
W.  Batten,  "  The  Sanctuary  at  Shiloh,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XIX 
(1900),  pp.  29-33;  G.  Allen,  "Sacred  Stones,"  Eortnightly  Revie7v,]a.i\-az.Yy,  1900; 
Stibitz,  "  The  Centralization  of  Jehovah  Worship  in  Israel,"  Reformed  Church  Review, 
January,  1900;  JOHN  Adams,  The  Mosaic  Tabernacle:  Studies  in  the  Priesthood  and 
the  Sanctuary  of  the  Jews  (1901);  G.  F.  MooRE,  article  "  High  Place"  in  Encyclo- 
pcedia  Biblica  (1901). 

Bahr,  Der  salomonische  Tempel,  mit  Beriicksichtigung  seines  Verhdltnisses  zur 
hebrdischen  Architektur  iiberhaupt{i8^8)\  Merz,  article  "  Tempel  "  m  Real-Encyklopddie 
fiir  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (ist  ed.  1854-68,  2d  ed.  1877  ff.) ;  Balmer- 
RiNCK,  Des  Propheten  Ezechiel  Gesicht  vom  Tempel  (1858);  Kamphausen,  "  Bemer- 
kungen  iiber  die  Stiftshiitte,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1858,  pp.  97-121 ; 


80  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

1859,  pp.  110-20;  Fries,  "Zu  Kamphausen's  Bemerkungen  iiber  die  Stiftshiitte," 
'  Theologische  Stiidien  und  Kritiken,  1859,  pp.  103-10;  Poi'PER,  Der  biblische  Bericht 
iiber  die  Stiftshiitte  (1862);  RiGGENBACH,  "  Die  mosaische  Stiftshiitte  :  Seibstanzeige," 
Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1863,  pp.  36 1-8  ;  H.  Pierson,  Z)i? /^«7/^^  steenen 
in  lsrael{\Zbi,  ff.) ;  H.  OORT,  "  De  heiligdommen  van  Jehovah  te  Dan  en  te  Bethel  voor 
Jerobeam  I.,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  \'ib'],  ■^■\^.  i^^-iob;  T)vy\.m,  Die  Theologie  der 
Propheten  (1875),  pp.  312-20:  Baudissin,  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religionsgeschichte, 
Vol.11  (1878),  pp.  143-269;  KiJHN,  "Ezechiel's  Gesicht  vom  Tempel  der  Vollen- 
dungszeil,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1882,  pp.  601-88;  Kohlbrugge, 
Die  Stiftshiitte  und  ihre  Gerdthe  (1882);  Stade,  "Der  Text  des  Berichtes  iiber 
Salomos  Bauten,  I  Ko.  5-7,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamenihche  Wissenschaft,  1 883, 
pp.  129-77;  Smend,  "  Ueber  die  Bedeutung  des  jerusalemischen  Tempels  in  der 
alttestamentlichen  Religion,"  Theologische  Studien  uttd  Kritiken,  1884,  pp.  689-740  ; 
SCHURER,  article  "  Tempel  Salerno's"  in  Riehm's  Handw'orterbuch  des  biblischen  Alter- 
thums  (1884);  H.  Pailloux,  Monographie  du  temple  de  Salomon  (1885);  Stade, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (1887  i.).  Vol.  I,  pp.  325-43,  446-67;  Vol.  II,  pp.  45  ff., 
113-28,  245-51  ;  Wellhausen,  /?este  des  arabischen  Heidenthutns  (1887),  pp.  42-60, 
98-105,  113,  171;  Th.  Friedrich,  Tempel  und  Palast  Salomos  ti.  s.  w.  (1887);  O. 
Wolff,  Der  Tempel  von  Jerusalem  und  seine  Maasse  (1887);  H.  L.  Schouten,  De 
tabernakel  Gods  heiligdom  by  Israel  (1888);  C.  Chipiez  et  G.  Perrot,  Le  temple  de 
Jerusalem  et  la  maison  du  Bois-Libanon,  restitues  d'apris  Ezechiel  et  le  livre  des  Kois 
(1889);  F.  V.  Andrian,  ZJ^r  Hdhenkult  asiatischer  und  europdischer  V'dlker  (1891); 
Piepenbring,  "Histoire  des  lieux  de  culte  et  du  sacerdoce  en  Israel,"  Revue  de  Phis- 
toire  des  religions.  Vol.  XXIV  (1891),  pp.  1-60,  133-86;  E.  de  Broglie,  "La  loi  de 
I'unitd  de  sanctuaire  en  Israel,"  Compte  rendu  du  congris  scientifique  international 
des  catholiques,  1892,  2d  sect.,  pp.  69-89;  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israelitischeft  Reli- 
gion (1897),  pp.  27-31,  98-103;  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religions- 
geschichte {is\.  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  pp.  128-38;  Benzinger,  Ilebrdische  Archdologie 
(1894),  pp.  243-9,364-404;  ^OVJ ACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  {\8gt\), 
Vol.11,  pp.  1-86;  Dlhl.U AN'N,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie  {\8<^^),  %&& 
/wfl'ifjf,  J. z/.  "Tempel;"  H.  A.  "^oy-YJ-,,  Le  sanctuaire  de  Kirjath-Jeariin  (1895);  S.  A. 
Fries,  Den  israelitiska  kultens  centralisation  (1895)  >  E.  SCHURE,  Sanctuaires  d'Orient, 
£gypte,  Grice,  Palestine  (1898);  Aug.  Freiherr  von  Gall,  Altisraelitische  Kult- 
stdtten  (1898);  B.  A.,  "Die  heiligen  Statten  in  Palastina,"  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen 
Zeitung  (1898),  No.  221 ;  F.  Tournier,  "Notes  sur  les  temples  paiens  de  furvi&re  a 
r^poque  romaine,"  D Universite  catholique,  1899,  pp.  361-92;  Basset,  "Les  sanctu- 
aires du  Djebel  Nefousa,"  Journal  asiatique,  1900;  Meinhold,  Die  Lade  Jahves 
(1900);  Ernst  Sellin,  Studien  zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  der  jiidischen  Gemeinde 
nach  dem  babylonischen  Exil,  Vol.  II  (1901).  pp.  44-56  ;  B.  Stade,  "  Die  Kesselwagen 
des  salomonischen  Tempels,  X  Kb.  7  :  27-39,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  IFis- 
senschaft.  Vol  XXI  (1901),  pp.  145-90;  K.  Budde,  "Die  urspriingliche  Bedeutung 
der  Lade  Jahwe's,"  ibid.  (1901). 

§82.  Supplementary  Topics. 

I.  Consider  the  following  citations  from  the  book  of  Psalms  :  5  :  7; 
11:4;  20:2;  22:25;  24:3;  26:  6-8,  12  ;  27  :  4-6  ;  28  :  2  ;  29  19  ; 
36  :  8  ;  40  :  9;  42  :  4  ;  43:  3  f.;  46  :  4  ;  48:  i  f-,  8  f.;  51  :  18  f.;  52  :8  ; 
55  :  14  ;   61  :  4;    63  :  2  ;   65  :  i,  4  ;    66  :  13;    68  :  1 5-1  7,  24,  29  ;    69  :  9  ; 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    PLACE    OF    WORSHIP       8 1 

73:17;  74:2  ff.;  76:2;  77:13;  78:54,  58,  60,  68  f.;  79:1-13; 
84;  87;  92  :  13  ;  93  :  5  ;  96  :  6-8  ;  99  :  9  ;  100  :  4  ;  102  :  13  ff.;  114:2; 
122;  125:1;  i27:i(?);  132;  134;  135:  if.;  i38:2;and  formulate 
a  statement  concerning  the  place  of  worship  as  it  stands  related  to  the 
idea  of  worship  as  expressed  in  the  Psalter. 

2.  Examine  the  allusions  to  the  place  of  worship  found  in  the  apoc- 
ryphal books,  e.  g.,  I  Mace.  4  :  36-59  ;  5  :  i,  68  ;  6:7,  18,  26,  51,  54  ; 
7:33-38  ;  9:54-57  ;  10:41-44;  II  :  37;  13:  3,  6;  14:  15,  48  :  16  :  20; 
2  Mace.  I  :  8,  15  ff.,  18,  32-34  ;  2  :  i  ff.,  17-19,  22  ;  3:2,  12,  14  ff.; 
4:14;    5:15-21;     6:2-5;     8:17;     9:16;     10:1-8,26;     13:8,23; 

14  :  4,  31-33,  36  ;  and  note  any  important  modifications  which  seem 
to  have  been  made. 

3.  Consider  the  place  of  worship  as  it  is  referred  to  in  the  New 
Testament,  e.  g.,  in  Matt.  4:3;  6:2,6;  9:35;  12:  4-6,  9  ;  13:54; 
21:12-14,  23;    23:  16-22,  35;24:iff.,  15;    26:61;     27:5;    Mark 

1  :  21-29  ;  3:1;  5:22,  35  ff.;  6:2  ff.;  11:15  ff.,  27;  12:41  ff.;  13:1 
ff.,  9  ;  14  :  58  ;  Luke  i  :  8-23  ;  2  :  22  ff.,  41  ff.;  4  :  16,  20,  28,  33,  38, 
44;  6:6;  8  :  41,  49  ;  13  :  10 ;  19  :  45  ff.;  21  :  1-6,  37  f.;  22  :  52  f.; 
John  2  :  13-22  ;  4  :  19-24 ;   7:14,  28;    ii:55ff.;   16:2;  Acts  i  :  13  f.; 

2  :  I  ff.,  46  ;  3  :  I  ff.;  4:1;  6  :  13  f.;  9  :  i  f.,  20  ;  13  :  14  f.,  43  ;  14:1; 
16:16;  17: 1  ff.,  10,  17;  18:4,8,19;  19  :  8  f.;  20  :  7  ff.;  21:26ft.; 
22:19;  25:8;  28:3of.;  1  Cor.  8  :  10  ;  16:19;  Eph.  2:19-22;  i 
Tim.  3  :  15;  Philem.,  vs.  i  ;  Heb.  8  :  i  f.;  9  :  1-12,  24  f.;  10  :  19  f.; 
12  :  18   ff.;     13  :  10  ff.;    Rev.  8:3;    9:13;     ii:if.,  19;     14:15,  18; 

15  :  5-8;  21  :  3,  22;  and  formulate  the  points  of  difference  which 
appear. 

4.  Study  the  origin  and  development  of  the  synagogue,  noting  (a) 
its  relation  to  the  temple,  (/^)  the  different  character  of  its  services  as 
compared  with  those  of  the  temple,  (c)  its  origin  in  response  to  a  great 
religious  need,  and  (d)  its  historical  significance  as  the  forerunner  of 
the  church,  the  Christian  place  of  worship.  See,  e.  g.,  Ezek.  8:1: 
20  :  1-3  ;  Ps.  74  :  8  ;  Matt.  9  :  35  ;  12:9;  Mark  5  :  35  ;  6  :  i  ff.;  Acts 
9  :  I  ff.;     13  :  13  ff.;    14:1;    17:1,  etc.^ 

5.  Study  the  causes   which  led  to  the  building  of  the  Samaritan 
sSee  article  "  Synagogue  "  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica  ;  E.  H.  Plumptre,  article 

"Synagogue  "  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theology, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  428  ff.;  MONTEFIORE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (see  Index,  s.  v. 
"  Synagogue  ") ;  Schurer,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Christ,  Div. 
II,  Vol.  I,  pp.  52-83  ;  Edersheim,  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
430-50;  Ferguson,  The  Synagogue  Service  in  the  Ti?ne  of  Christ ;  Kent,  A  History 
of  the  Jewish  People  (see  Index). 


82  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

temple  on  Mount  Gerizim.  Was  this  movement  a  source  of  strength 
or  of  weakness  to  the  Jewish  community  in  Jerusalem?  What  was  the 
attitude  of  Jesus  toward  the  Samaritan  temple?  See,  e.  g.,  Ezra,  chap. 
4  ;  Neh.  2  :  18-20  ;  4  :  1-23  ;  6  :  1-19  ;  13  :  28  ;  John  4  :  19-24  {cf.  §  45). 
6.  Consider  the  causes  which  have  led  to  the  change  of  view  as  to 
the  function  of  the  place  of  worship  seen  in  the  fact  that  originally  a 
temple  was  looked  upon  as  the  abode  of  the  deity,  while  now  it  is 
regarded  primarily  as  a  meeting-place  for  worshipers. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    LAWS    AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  SACRIFICE,  CONSIDERED  COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§83.  Sacrifice  in  the  Early  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in  (a)  the 
Covenant  Code,  (^)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E,  (c)  the  pre- 
Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  and  (d)  the  pre- 
Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §  59,  note  i). 

I.  Kinds  of  offerings.' 

Gen.  28  :i8;  35  :  14;  Exod.  8:  20  f.;  10:  24  ff.;  18  :I2  ;  20  :  24  ;  24  :  5  ; 

Judg.  6  :  26 ;   i  Sam.  10:8;  21:6;   i  Kings  3:4;   12  :  26-35  J   2  Kings 

16:12  f.;  Isa.  1:11-13;  Hos.  4:13;  9:4;   11:2. 
(^2.   Materials  of  sacrifice. 

Gen.  4:3;  15  :9  ff.;  8  :2o  £f.;  22  :  1-13  ;  28  :  18  ;  35  :  14  ;  Exod.  20  :  24; 

Numb.  23  :  1-4,  14;    Judg.  13  :  16-19 ;    6:18-24,26;    iSam.  7:9f.; 

21:6;   I  Kings  8  :  5. 
3.  Manner  of  sacrifice. 

Exod.  34  :  25  ;  23  :  18  ;    Numb.  23  : 1-4,  14  ;  i  Sam.  2  :  13-17  ;    2  Sam. 

6:13;   I  Kings  18  :  30-38;  2  Kings  16:12  f. 
/  4.  Occasion  and  purpose  of  sacrifice. 
>      Gen.   46:1^/    Exod.  2^:isc,-    34:20^/    Numb.   23:1-4,   14;     Judg. 

6:18-24;   13:16-19;    I    Sam.    i:3ff.;  6:15;  7:9f.;    11:15;  20:29; 

2  Sam.  6:  13,  17  f.;  24:22-25;   i  Kings  8:5;   18  :  30-38. 
5.  Sacrifice  was  often  a  social  or  family  meal. 

Gen.  18:1-8;  31  :  54  ;  Exod.  18:12;  Numb.  22  :  40 ;  Deut.  27  :6d,7; 

I  Sam.  I  :  3  ff.;  9:  12  f.;   16  :  2,  5  ;  20:  29. 
'^6.  Human  sacrifice  was  not  unknown. 

Gen.  22:1-13;  Hos.   I3:2(?). 

7.  Sacrifice  to  idols  was  common. 

Exod.  32:6;   I    Kings   12:26-33;    2   Kings   5:i7(?);    10:19,    24  f.; 
Hos.  4:13;   11:2. 

8.  The  priest  was  given  a  share  of  the  sacrifice. 
I  Sam.  2  :  13-17. 

'The  following  are  J-references :  Gen.  4 : 3 ;  8:20  £f.;  18: 1-8;  35  =  14;  Exod. 
8  :20  f.;  34  :  20c,  25  ;  Numb.  23  : 1-4,  14  {?);  Deut.  27  :  6d,  7  (?).  The  following  are 
E-references  :  Gen.  15  :9  £f.;  22:1-13,  28:18;  31:54;  46  :  i-^  /  E-xod.  10  :  24  ff.; 
18:12;  20:24;  23:  I5<-,  18;  24:  5;  32:6;  Numb.  22:40. 

83 


84  PRIKSTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

9.  The  prophets'  attitude  toward  sacrifice. 

Amos    4:4f-;    5:22-25;    Hos.    3:4;    4:13,19;    6:6;    8:13;    9:4; 
11:2;  13:2;  Isa.  I  :  1 1-13  ;  34  :  6. 

§  84.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  What  were  the  various  kinds  of  offerings  made  in  this  period  ? 
What  significance  attached  to  each  kind  —  for  example,  what  was  the 
meaning  of  the  burnt-offering  ?  of  the  peace-offering  ?  of  the  pass- 
over  offering  ?  Consider  to  what  extent  (a)  sacrifice  in  this  period 
was  equivalent  to  a  social  meal ;  (^)  the  eating  of  meat  was  a  sacrificial 
act  ;   [c)  the  spirit  of  joy  accompanied  the  act. 

2.  Note  the  kinds  of  material  used  in  sacrifice,  for  example,  the 
flesh  of  animals  (what  animals?  animals  of  what  age?),  oil,  wine, 
meal.  What  was  the  reason  underlying  the  use  of  each  of  these  kinds 
of  material  ? 

3.  Why  was  leavened  bread  not  to  be  used  in  connection  with  a 
sacrifice  ?  Why  was  no  part  of  the  sacrifice  to  be  left  over  until  the 
morning  of  the  following  day  ?  What  points  concerning  sacrifice 
may  be  noted  in  connection  with  Balaam's  sacrifice  (Numb.  23:  1-4, 
14,  27-30)?  Consider  the  custom  of  the  priests  in  Samuel's  time,  and 
what  it  involved.  Study  Elijah's  sacrifice  on  (iilgal,  and  note  the 
bearing  of  the  details  on  the  subject. 

4.  Upon  what  occasion,  and  under  what  circumstances,  were  sacri- 
fices offered  ?  What  purpose  lay  in  the  mind  of  the  offerer  ?  What 
was  sought  for  in  the  act  ? 

5.  When  sacrifice  was  only  a  social  or  family  meal,  what  was  the 
religious  element?  Was  the  deity  ever  thought  to  partake  of  the 
meal?  Was  the  deity  ever  supposed  to  be  related  to  the  family  ? 
What  was  the  connection  between  this  social  act  and  the  spirit  of  joy 
which,  in  early  times,  seems  to  have  characterized  the  act  of  sacrifice? 

6.  Consider  the  willingness  of  Abraham  to  sacrifice  his  son  Isaac, 
and  what  was  involved  in  this  willingness  ?  Explain  to  yourself  the 
custom  of  human  sacrifice ;  how  could  it  have  arisen  ?  what  wrong 
ideas  did  it  rest  upon  ? 

7.  Note  some  of  the  instances  in  which  sacrifice  was  offered  to 
idols.  Since  the  idols  were  believed  to  represent  deities,  either  that 
of  Israel  or  those  of  other  nations,  was  this  not  something  clearly  to 
have  been  expected  ? 

8.  Note  that  in  this  period  the  priest,  whatever  other  kind  of 
support  he  may  have  received,  was  given  a  share  of  the  sacrifice. 

9.  Formulate  a  statement  containing  the  substance  of  the  prophet's 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  85 

attitude  toward  sacrifice;  and  consider  whether  the  prophet  was 
opposing  (a)  the  act  of  sacrifice  itself;  or  (3)  a  cold,  indifferent,  hypo- 
critical spirit,  with  which  men  in  those  days  had  become  accustomed 
to  offer  sacrifice;  or  (c)  the  feeling,  which  had  become  quite  general, 
that  sacrifice  was  enough  to  gain  Jehovah's  pleasure,  that  this  was  all 
that  he  expected,  and  that  this,  without  reference  to  conduct,  con- 
stituted religion. 

§85.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  on  sacrifice  in  the 
early  period,  embodying  the  material  presented  above. 

§  86.  Sacrifice  in  the  Middle  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in  the  laws 
of  Deuteronomy,  in  the  Deuteronomic  prophecies,  and  in  the  Deuter- 
onomic  portions  of  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings. 

1.  Kinds  of  offerings.^ 

Deut.  12  :  4-7,  16  ;  Mic.  6  :  6-8  ;  Jer.  17  :  26  ;  33  :  1 1,  18. 

2.  Materials  of  sacrifice. 

Deut.  16  :  2-4  ;  Mic.  6  :  6-8  ;  Jer.  6  :  20  ;   Isa.  43  :  23  £f,;    i  Sam.  2  :  27. 

3.  Manner  of  offering. 

Deut.  12  :  27;  16  :  7;  Jer.  33  :  18;   i  Sam.  2  :  27. 

4.  Occasion  and  purpose  of  offerings. 
Deut.  16  :  2-4  ;   i  Sam.  3  :  1 4  ;  Jer.  33  :  1 1 . 

5.  Social  element  in  sacrifice. 
Deut.  12  :  4-14  ;   i  Kings  3:15. 

6.  Slaughter  and  sacrifice  are  no  longer  synonymous  terms. 
Deut.  12  :  15,  20-28. 

7.  Priest's  portion  of  the  sacrifice. 
Deut.  18  : 3,  4  ;   i  Sam.  2  :  28,  36. 

8.  Human  sacrifice  still  existed. 
Mic.  6:  6-8. 

9.  Prophets'  attitude  toward  sacrifice. 

Zeph.  I  :  7,  8  ;  Mic.  6  :6-8  ;  Jer.  6  :2o  ;  7  :  21  f.,  29;   17  :26  ;  33  :  1 1 ,81  ; 
46  :  10  ;  Isa.  43  :  23  f. 

§87.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Note  in  Deut.  12:4-7  ip)  the  kinds  of  offerings  mentioned 
(including  tithe,  heave-offering,  free-will  offering),  and  {b)  the  spirit 
of  rejoicing  in  which  these  offerings  are  to  be  made.  Consider  in 
Mic.  6  :  6-8  {a)  the  possibilities  of  sacrifice  (including  that  of  one's  own 
child),  (I))  the  purpose  of  sacrifice,  and  {c)  the  requirement  of  Jehovah. 

2.  Consider  the  materials  used  in  sacrifice,  as  mentioned  in  passages 
'  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuteronomy, 


86  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

cited  above,  and  note  any  variations  in  comparison  with  those  used  in 
the  earlier  age. 

3.  Consider  (a)  the  use  made  of  the  blood  ;  its  pouring  on  the  altar ; 
{f}  the  roasting  of  the  flesh  ;  (c)  the  eating  of  the  flesh;  (d)  the  employ- 
ment of  men  "to  burn  meal-offerings  and  to  do  sacrifice." 

4.  Consider  the  connection  of  the  Passover  with  the  going-up  of 
Israel  out  of  Egypt,  (a)  in  relation  to  time  (was  there  not  a  spring 
feast  celebrated  by  the  ancient  nations  before  the  exodus  ?)  ;  (3)  in 
relation  to  ceremony  (why  was  unleavened  bread  to  be  used  ?) ;  (c)  in 
relation  to  the  purpose  of  the  act.  Was  the  sacrifice  intended  to 
purge  or  purify  from  sin  ?  Was  sacrifice  intended  also  to  be  an 
expression  of  gratitude  for  some  favor  already  received  ? 

5.  Is  the  social  element  still  to  be  seen  in  this  period,  that  is,  does 
the  family  or  clan  meal,  with  all  its  social  accompaniments,  constitute 
a  sacrifice  ? 

6.  What  new  distinction  has  arisen  as  between  the  slaughter  of  ani- 
mals and  the  act  of  sacrifice  ?  Wherein  does  the  distinction  consist? 
What  led  to  the  making  of  the  distinction?  What,  naturally,  will 
follow  as  a  result  of  making  this  distinction  ? 

7.  Note  (a)  the  particular  portions  of  each  animal  sacrificed,  which 
are  assigned  as  the  portion  of  the  priest,  that  is,  for  his  maintenance; 
(d)  the  additional  perquisites  he  receives  in  the  way  of  grain,  oil,  wine, 
and  meal  ;  and  (c)  the  ground  for  these  gifts. 

8.  What  evidence  is  there  that  in  this  period  human  beings  are  still 
used  for  sacrifice  ? 

9.  Consider  the  attitude  of  the  prophets  of  this  period  toward  sac- 
rifice, and  determine  (see  §84,  9)  the  real  meaning  of  this  attitude. 

§88.  Constructive  "Work. — Prepare  a  statement  which  will  contain, 
in  some  detail,  the  differences  between  the  usages  of  the  middle  period 
in  respect  to  sacrifice,  and  those  of  the  early  period. 

§89.  Sacrifice  as  Presented  by  Ezekiel. 

1.  Kinds  of  offerings. 

Ezek.  40:39;  42:13;  46:12;  45:13-17;  20:40. 

2.  Materials  of  sacrifice. 
Ezek.  44  ■•  15  ;  46:4-7- 

3.  Manner  of  sacrifice. 

Ezek.  40:38-43;  44  :  II.  15  ;  46  :  4-1 5.  24. 

4.  Occasion  and  purpose  of  sacrifice. 
Ezek.  46:4-15;  43:18-27;  45:13-25- 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  8/ 

5.  Sacrifice  was  still  thought  of  as  a  banquet. 
Ezek.  39  :  17-20  ;  46:24. 

6.  Sacrifice  was  still  offered  to  idols. 
Ezek.  20 :  28-31. 

7.  Human  sacrifice. 
Ezek.  16  :20  £.;  23  :39. 

8.  Priests  retained  a  share  of  the  sacrifice. 
Ezek.  42  :  13. 

§90.  Constructive  Work. — ^  Consider  the  various  allusions  to  sacri- 
fice in  Ezekiel,  under  the  topics  suggested  above,  and  prepare  a 
statement  covering  (a)  the  points  of  resemblance  and  difference  in 
comparison  with  the  facts  of  the  early  and  middle  periods  ;  (^)  the  more 
formal  and  ofificial  character  with  which  sacrifice  seems  to  be  invested 
by  Ezekiel ;  (c)  the  exceedingly  elaborate  system  of  sacrifice  provided 
for,  e.  g.,  in  46  :  4-15  ;  {d)  the  fact  that,  notwithstanding  all  this,  the 
earlier  idea  of  sacrifice  as  a  banquet  still  exists  (39  :  17-20  ;  46  :  24). 

§91.  Sacrifice  in  the  Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in  {a)  the 
laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,  [b)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and  {c)  in  the 
priestly  histories,  e.  g.,  Ezra,  Neheraiah,  Chronicles. 

1.  Kinds  of  offerings.^ 

Lev.  7:1,11;  6:8,  14,  25  ;  8  :  22  ;  23:  10b,  11,  13  ;  Exod.  25  :  30;  30  :  7  ; 
Numb.  15  :i9  ;  5  :  11-31. 

2.  Materials  of  sacrifice.- 

Lev.  I  :  1-3,  10,  14  ;  2:1,4  f.,  7,  11,  13-15  ;  3  :  i,  3  f .,  6  f .,  9  f .,  12,  14  f., 
16  f.;  5  :6  f.,  II  ;  6  :  1-7,  15,  igf.;  7  :  3-5,  11  fE.;  9  : 1-4  ;  12  :  6-8  ;  14: 10, 
49  ;  24  :  5-9  ;  Numb.  15  :  1-21  ;  Exod.  29  :  1-3,  22  f.,  38-42  ;  Numb., 
chap.  28  ;  Exod.  30  :  34-38  ;  Lev.  22  :  18-25,  27  f.;  23:  10^-14. 

3.  The  fat  and  blood  are  regarded  as  especially  sacred. 
Lev.  7 :  22-27  ;  8  :  15,  23  f.;  9  :  19-21  ;  17  :  6  ;  etc. 

4.  Manner  of  sacrifice. 

Lev.  I  :  3-9,  11-13,  15-17  ;  2  : 1  f.,  4-16 ;  3  :  1-17  ;  4  : 1-35  ;  5  :  8  f.,  12 ; 
6  :  1-7,  8-13,  14-18,  19-23,  24-30  ;  7  :  I  ff.,  11-21  ;  8  :  14-30  ;  9  :  8-11, 
12-14,  15-24;  14:10-32,  49-53;  16  :  3-28  ;  24  :  5-9  ;  Numb.  5  :  11-31; 
19  :  1-22  ;  Exod.  29  :  10-42  ;  30 :  7-10  ;  Lev.  22  :  29  f.;  19  :  5-8. 

5.  Occasion  and  purpose  of  sacrifice. 

Lev.  4  :  1-3,  13  f.,  20,  22-28,  31,  35  ;  5 ;  1-6,  13-15.  17-19  ;  6  :  1-7,  30  ; 
9:7;  12  :  6-8  ;  14  :  20,  31,  53  ;  15  :  13-15,  28-30  ;  23  :  10*^-21  ;  Numb. 
5  :  11-31 ;  15 : 17-21,  22-28 ;  19  : 1-22  ;  chap.  28  ;  Exod.  30 : 7-10. 

3  References  to  the  Levitical  Code  are  in  bold-face  type. 


88  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

6.  The  priests'  share  of  the  sacrifice. 

Lev.  2:3,10;  5:13;  6  :  16-18,  26,  29  ;  7  :  6-10, 14,  28-38  ;  8:31;  10 :  12- 
20;  Numb.  5:5-10;  Exod.  29:27-32;  Numb.  18:8-20. 

7.  All  slaughter  is  sacrificial. 
Lev.  17: 1-9. 

8.  Fevv  references  to  idolatrous  sacrifices. 
Lev.  17:7. 

9.  Attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  sacrifice. 

Isa,  1 9  :  2 1 ;  56:7;  66  :  3  ;  Mai.  i  :  7-9  ;  3  :  3-5  ;  Joel  1:9,  13;  2:14; 
Dan.  9  :  27. 

10.  Sacrifice  is  given  a  large  place  in  the  later  histories. 

I  Chron.  15  :  26  ;  16:  i  ;  21  :  26  £f.;  29  :  21  f.;  2  Chron.  1:5;  2:4;  5:6; 
7  :  4  £f.;  8  :  I2f.;  1 1  :  16;  13  :  11;  15:11;  24  :  14  ;  29  :  20-36  ;  30:  15  ff.; 
3i:2ff.;  33:i6f.;  Ezra3:2ff.;  6:17;  7:17;  8:35;  10:19;  Neb. 
io:33f.;    I2:43f. 

11.  Prominence  of  the  idea  of  sin  in  connection  with  sacrifice. 
Lev.  4:35;  chap.  16;  9:3;  io:i6ff.;  Numb.  15:  22-31;  19:1-9. 

§92.  Questions  and  Suggestions. —  How  much  in  detail  the  various 
topics  concerning  sacrifice  in  the  later  period  shall  be  taken  up  will  be 
determined  in  some  measure  by  one's  archaeological  interests.  In  any 
case,  these  topics  deserve  consideration  because  of  their  sociological,  as 
well  as  their  religious,  bearing  : 

1.  Prepare  a  list  of  the  kinds  of  offerings,  viz.,  burnt-offering, 
peace-offering,  sin-offering,  etc.,  including  vows,  the  offering  involved 
in  Naziritism,  the  offering  of  purification.  From  the  passages  describ- 
ing each,  and  from  a  study  of  the  name  (in  English  and,  if  possible, 
in  Hebrew),  differentiate  these  various  offerings  from  each  other  and 
determine  what  was  distinctly  characteristic  in  each  case.  Consider, 
now,  whether  any  principle  of  classification  exists  ;  e.  g. :  [a)  Are  they, 
in  each  case,  voluntary  or  obligatory?  {b)  Are  they,  in  each  case, 
self-dedicatory,  eucharistic,  or  expiatory?  Suggest  any  other  possible 
bases  for  classification. 

2.  Take  up,  one  by  one,  the  materials  which  might  be  used  in  sac- 
rifice, noting,  [a]  in  reference  to  animal  offerings:  (i)  the  particular 
animals  which  were  deemed  acceptable  ;  (2)  the  possible  explanations  of 
the  selection  of  these  animals  with  the  rejection  of  others ;  (3)  whether 
the  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  animals*  was  in  any  way 
connected  with  the  choice  for  sacrifice  ;    {b)  in  reference  to  vegetable 

*  Cf.  Lev.,  chap.  1 1  ;  Deut.  14  :  3-21  ;  and  see  G.  A.  SiMCOX,  article  "  Clean  and 
Unclean,"  §8,  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  and  chap.  x. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  89 

offerings:  (i)  the  particular  vegetables  authorized ;  (2)  the  reason  or 
reasons  for  this  selection  ;  (c)  the  character  of  offerings  worthy  of  being 
accepted  ;  (d)  other  possible  gifts  outside  of  animals  and  vegetables, 
<f.  g.,  one's  hair,s  one's  virginity,*  one's  blood;'  (<?)  objects  connected 
more  or  less  closely  with  sacrifice,  e.  g.,  wine,  incense,  salt,  oil,  blood, 
fat,  leaven,  honey;  (/)  the  meaning  or  significance  of  each  kind  of 
material  as  employed  in  sacrifice. 

3.  Note  the  particularly  important  emphasis  placed  upon  the  use  of 
the  blood  and  fat,  and  consider  what  was  involved  in  this,  and  the 
principle  underlying  it. 

4.  Study,  in  detail,  the  method  of  sacrifice,  viz.,  [a)  the  ceremonial 
of  the  animal  sacrifice  which  included  (i)  the  circumstances  connected 
with  the  presentation  of  the  victim,  e.  g.,  the  laying  on  of  hands,  the 
time,  the  place,  (2)  the  slaughter,  (3)  the  use  made  of  the  blood,  (4) 
the  flaying  of  the  animal  and  its  dissection,  (5)  the  burning,  (6)  the 
washing,  (7)  the  waving  and  heaving,  (8)  the  sacrificial  meal;  {b)  the 
ceremonial,  in  similar  fashion,  of  the  vegetable  offering;  {c)  the  cere- 
monial of  the  drink-offering  ;  [d)  the  distinction  involved  between 
burning  the  offering  and  eating  it;  {e)  the  distinction  involved 
between  consuming  all  and  only  a  portion. 

5.  Study  the  occasion  and  purpose  of  sacrifice  as  it  appears  in  the 
later  period,  considering  {a)  how  far  it  is  national,  i.  e.,  offered  for  the 
nation  as  a  whole  {cf.  Exod.  29:38-42;  Numb.  28:9 — 29:6);  {b) 
how  far  it  is  official,  i.  <?.,  offered  for  certain  officers  of  the  state,  the 
priest,  or  the  ruler  {cf.  Numb.  4  :  22-26);  (<;)  how  far  it  is  individual, 
i.  e.,  offered  for  the  ordinary  man  as  an  individual ;  {d)  how  far  it 
is  festal,  i.  e.,  associated  with  feasts,  e.  g.,  the  Passover,  the  Feast  of 
Harvest ;  (e)  how  far  it  is  extraordinary,  i.  <?.,  connected  with  special 
rather  than  regularly  recurring  events ;  (/)  how  far  it  is  local  or 
centralized,  i.  e.,  offered  where  one  chanced  to  be,  or  at  some  place 
selected  from  all  other  places,  and  authorized  as  the  proper  and  only 
proper  place  ;  {g)  how  far  it  is,  in  this  period,  a  gift  or  offering,  rather 
than  the  payment  of  a  demand  or  of  something  due. 

6.  Put  together  the  various  elements  which  made  up  the  priest's 

sSee  Lev.  19:27;  21:5;  cf.  Jer.  7:29,  and  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the 
Semites,  2d  ed.,  pp.  323-35. 

^  Cf.  I  Kings  14:24;  15:12;  22:47;  2  Kings  23:7;  NoWACK,  Hebrdisc/ie 
Archaologie,  Vol.  II,  pp.  132  f.;  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  pp.  454  ff.; 
Frazeb,  Golden  Bough,  Vol.  II,  pp.  225  ff. 

'  Cy.  Ps.  50  :  13  ;  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Blood  "); 
H.  C.  Trumbull,  The  Blood  Covenavi. 


go  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

due,  and  consider  whether  (a)  upon  the  whole  he  was  properly  repaid 
for  his  services,  {i>)  he  deserved  any  longer  to  be  classed  with  the 
widow  and  orphan,  as  in  Deuteronomy. 

7.  Note  that  all  slaughter  of  animals  for  purposes  of  eating  is 
sacrificial ;  that  every  animal  must  be  formally  presented  at  the 
appointed  place;  and  that  punishment  is  to  be  inflicted  upon  those 
who  do  not  recognize  this  fact. 

8.  Observe  that  offerings  to  idols  have  almost  fallen  into  disuse. 

9.  Consider  the  attitude  of  the  later  prophets  toward  sacrifice;  are 
they  hostile?  or  indifferent? 

10.  Make  a  list  of  the  events  narrated  in  the  later  histories  with 
which  sacrifice  is  connected,  and  note  (a)  how  large  a  place  sacrifice  is 
given;  (<5)  how  much  more  frequently  the  priest-writers  recount  the 
act  of  sacrifice  than  do  the  prophetic  writers  of  Samuel  and  Kings  ;  (c) 
the  significance  of  this  in  connection  with  the  greater  in:iportance 
attached  to  sacrifice  in  this  later  period. 

11.  Consider  (a)  the  intimate  connection,  whether  expressed  or 
implied,  between  all  this  detail  of  ceremonial  and  the  idea  of  si/i ;  {b) 
the  intimate  connection  between  the  idea  of  sin  thus  expressed  and  the 
conception  of  God  which  had  come  to  exist  in  this  period  ;  {c)  the 
suggestive  fact  that,  side  by  side  with  this  objective  expression  of  the 
appreciation  of  sin  and  of  longing  for  communion  with  God,  there 
should  have  been  written  so  many  of  the  psalms,  which  express  sub- 
jectively and  spiritually  the  same  idea. 

§93.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  present 
in  the  form  of  a  summary  the  essential  differences  between  the  later 
and  preceding  periods  in  reference  to  sacrifice,  including  {a)  the 
chief  points  of  practice,  and  (b)  the  essential  principles  involved. 

§  9  4.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

J.  H.  Kurtz,  Sacrificial  Worship  of  the  Old  Testament  (1863);  Alfred  Barry, 
articles  " Sacrilice,"  "Sin-Offering,"  "Meat-Offering,"  "Burnt-Offering,"  etc.,  in 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1863);  EWALD,  The  Antiquities  of  Israel  {2,6.  ed.  1S66, 
transl.  1S76),  pp.  23-11 1;  Kalisch,  Commentary  on  Leviticus  (1867-72),  Part  I,  pp. 
I -416;  Part  ir,  pp.  9,  217  ff.,  290  ff.;  KuENEN,  j^tf/?>?0M  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl. 
1S74  f.).  Vol.  I,  pp.  236  f.;  Oehler,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1870,  transl.  1SS3),  pp. 
261-323;  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (1874),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice;"  Savce, 
"On  Human  Sacrifice  among  the  Babylonians,"  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
/^^r/^f^fp/o^j/,  Vol.  IV  (1876),  pp.  25-31 ;  E.  Park,  "On  the  Question  of  the  Divine 
Institution  of  Sacrifice,"  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1876,  pp.  102-32  ;  A.  Cave,  The  Scriptural 
Doctrine  of  Sacrifice  and  Atonement  {iSjy) ;  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the  History 
of  Israel  {\%']%'),Y^.  52-82;  R.  CoLi.iNS,  "An  Essay  on  Sacrifice,"  in  The  Pulpit  Com- 
mentary on  Leviticus  (1882),  pp.  i-xiv ;    Alfred  Cave.  "The  Levitical   Sacrifices 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  QI 

Lileially  Considered,"  in  The  Pulpil  Connnentary  on  Leviticus  (1882),  pp.  i-xxxi; 
H.  C.  Trumbull,  The  Blood  Covenant  [I'i^iS), see.  Index,  s.v."  Sacrifice  ; "  Leighton, 
The  Jewish  Altar  (1SS6);  A.  Hovey,  •' Shekkar  and  Leaven  in  Mosaic  Offerings," 
Old  Testament  Student,  1886,  pp.  11-16;  H.  CROSBY,  "The  Sacrifices,"  Old  Testament 
Student,  1886,  pp.  249  f.;  W.  R.  Smith,  article  "Sacrifice"  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
(1887);  Sayce,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Babylonians  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1887),  pp. 
77-82;  F.  Gardiner,  "On  the  Reason  for  the  Selection  of  Certain  Animals  for  Sacri- 
fice," Journal  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis,  1888,  pp.  146-50; 
W.  H.  Ward,  "On  Some  Babylonian  Cylinders,  Supposed  to  Represent  Human 
Sacrifices,"  Proceedings  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  May,  1888,  pp.  xxviii-xxx  ; 
KiTTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews  (1888-92,  transl.  1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice  ;" 
W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (ist  ed.  1889,  2d  ed.  1894),  pp.  213-340 ; 
Robertson,  Early  Religion  of  Israel  {iS8g),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice;"  P.  A. 
Nordell,  "Old  Testament  Word-Studies:  7.  Sacrifice  and  Worship,"  Old  Testatnent 
Student,  Vol.  VIII  (1889),  pp.  257  ff.;  W.  M.  Rodwell,  The  Mosaic  Sacrifices  in 
Lev.  I-III {\?,q6);  ScHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1892),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacri- 
fice;" Duff,  Old  Testametit  Theology  (1891-1900),  see  Indices  to  Vols.  I  and  II; 
Th.  E.  SchmaucK,  "The  Paschal  Lamb,"  Lutheran  Church  Revieiv,  1891,  pp. 
127-63;  C.  J.  Ball,  "Glimpses  of  Babylonian  Religion.  1:  Human  Sacrifices," 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archceology,  Vol.  XIV  (1892),  pp.  149-53; 
MoNTEFiORE,  Religion  of  the  Aticient  Hebrews  (1892),  see  Index;  H.  B.  Tristram, 
"Sacrifices  in  Babylonia  and  Phoenicia,"  Sunday  School  Tif7tes,  1894,  No.  i  ;  H.  C. 
Trumbull,  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life  (lig^),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice;"  A. 
Harper,  "The  Prophets  and  Sacrifice,"  Expositor,  1894,  pp.  241-53;  T.  K.  Cheyne, 
"The  Date  and  Origin  of  the  Ritual  of  the  Scz.'pegoa.t,''  Zeitschrift  ficr  die  alttesta- 
mentliche  Wissenschaft,  1895,  PP-  '53-6;  Ph.  J.  Hoedemaker,  "The  Atonement 
Money,"  The  Thinker,  1895  ;  A.  A.  Berle,  "  The  Real  Meaning  of  Semitic  Sacrifice," 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1895,  PP-  342-6;  Menzies,  History  of  Religion  (1895),  see  Index, 
s.  V.  "Sacrifice;"  Trumbull,  The  Threshold  Covenant (iSgb), see  Index, s.  v.  "Sacri- 
fice;" Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Offerings;"  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Sacrifices;"  A.  Fairbanks,  "The  Significance  of  Sacrifice  in  the  Homeric  Poems," 
The  Nezu  World,  June,  1898,  pp.  335-48;  A.  F.  Scot,  Offering  attd  Sacrifice:  An 
Essay  in  Comparative  Customs  and  Religious  Development  (1899);  Trumbull,  The 
Covenant  of  Salt  (1899),  pp.  83-96;  Boys-Smith,  "Sacrifice  in  Ancient  Religion 
and  in  Christian  Sacrament,"  Expository  Times,  December,  1899;  January,  1900 ; 
S.  R.  Driver,  article  "Offer,  Offering,  etc.,"  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
(1900);  Gast,  "  Idea  of  Sacrifice  as  Developed  in  the  Old  Testament,"  A'f/orwfo' 
Church  Review,  January,  1900;  Hermann  Schultz,  "The  Significance  of  Sacrifice 
in  the  Old  Testament,"  A?nerican  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  IV  (1900),  pp.  257-31^; 
Davis,  "The  Sin-Offering,"  Bible  Student,  February,  1900;  Edward  Day,  The  Social 
Life  of  the  Hebrews  {iqoi),}pY>-  39-46;  McCurdy,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monu- 
ments (1895-1901),  §§  738,  1006  f.,  1014  ;  D.  McKenzie,  Exposition  of  Old  Testament 
Sacrifice  (1901). 

V.  Thalhofer,  ZJ/^  unblutigen  Opfer  des  mosaischen  Cultus  (1848);  Heng- 
stenberg,  Die  Opfer  der  heiligen  Schrift  (1852) ;  Riehm,  "  Ueber  das  Schuldopfer," 
Theol.  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1854,  pp.  93-121;  S.  W.  Rinck,  "Ueber  das  Schuldop- 
fer," Theol.  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1855.  pp.  369-81;    A.  Stof.ckt  ,  Das  Opfer,  nach 


92  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

seinetfi  Wesen  und seiner  Geschichle  (i860);  Okhi.er,  revised  by  von  Orelli,  article 
"Opferkultus  des  A.  '\ '^,''  KealEncyklopddie  fitr  protestantische  Theol.  und  Kirche 
(2d  ed.,  1883);  Menant,  "  Les  sacrifices  sur  les  cylindres  chaldeers,"  Gazette 
archeologique,  1883,  Nos.  7-9;  Franz  Delitzsch,  article  "Opfer"  in  Riehm's 
Handworterbuch  des  biblischen  A/terthut/is  (1884);  Wellhausen,  Kes/e  des  arabischeti 
Heidenthums  [liSl),  pp.  IIO-28;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  {I'ii']  f.),Vol.  1, 
pp.  492-8;  Vol.  11,  pp.  253-64;  L.  Glahn,  "Soningen  i  den  gammeltestamentlige 
Offerkultus,"  Festskrift  Borcks  Colleg.,  pp.  281-3  (1889);  Friedr.  Nitzsch,  Die  Idee 
und  die  Stufen  des  Opferkultus  (1889) ;  C.  PlEPENBRiNG,  "  Histoire  des  lieux  de  culle 
et  du  sacerdoce  en  Israel,"  Revue  de  I  histoire  des  religions,  1891,  pp.  1-60,  133-86; 
Th.  Naville,  Les  sacrifices  levitiques  et  Vexpiation  (1891);  A.  Schmoller,  "Das 
Wesen  der  Suhne  in  der  alttestl.  Opferthora,"  Theol.  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1891,  pp. 
205-88;  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestl.  Religionsgeschichte  (1st  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899), 
pp.  138-45  ;  NoWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archaologie  (1894),  Vol.  II,  pp.  203- 
75;  Benzinger,  Hebrdische  Archaologie  (1894),  PP-  431-64  ;  P.  Schanz,  "  Der  Opfer- 
begriff,"  Theol.  Quartalschrift,  1894,  pp.  179-222;  G.  A.  SlEGRlST,  L'ide'e  du  sacrifice 
dansVA.  7^.(1894);  Di-L-lua^-^,  Handbuch  der  alttestl  Theologie  (i8gS), see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Opfer;"  Stade,  "Die  Eiiempienhora.,"  Zeitschri/t/iir  die  alttestl.  IVissenscha/t,  1895, 
pp.  166-78  ;  Kamphausen,  Das  Verhdltnis  des  Menschenopfers  zur  israelitischen  Reli- 
gion (1896) ;  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israelii.  Religion  (1897),  pp.  103-7,  225-31 ;  Levi, 
La  doctrine  du  sacrifice  dans  les  Brahmdnas  (1898);  G.  DE  Alviella,  "La  theorie  du 
sacrifice  et  les  recherches  de  Robertson  Smith,"  Revue  de  Vuniversite  de  Bruxelles, 
April,  1898;  M.  Lambert,  "  Le  mot  '\^\"  Journal  asiatique,  Vo].  XI  (1898),  pp. 
326  f.;  C.  Schmidt,  Die  Entwickelung  der  alttestamentlichen  Opferidee  (1899);  A. 
LoisY,  "Notes  sur  la  Gen&se.  VI:  Le  sacrifice  d'Isaac :  Gen.  22  :  1-19,"  Revtte  de 
P histoire  et  de  la  litterature  religieuses,  1899,  pp.  458-62;  P.  VOLZ,  "Die  Handauf- 
legung  beim  Opfer,"  Zeitschrift  fiir die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  igoi  ;  Lefebure, 
"  Le  sacrifice  humain  d'apres  les  rites  de  Busiris  et  d'Abydos,"  Sphinx,  Vol.  Ill, 
No.  2  ;  Chwolson,  Die  Ssabier  und  der  Ssabismus,  Vol.  II,  pp.  142-55. 

§95.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Study  the  principal  references  to  sacrifice  found  in  the  Psalter, 
e.g.,  Pss.  4:5;  20:3;  40:6;  50:5,8-14,  23;  5i:i6f.,  19;  54:6; 
56:12;  66:13,  15;  96  :8;  106:28,  37  f.;  107:22;  116:17;  118:27; 
and  consider  {a)  the  attitude  in  general  of  these  song-writers;  {b)  how 
far  they  have  spiritualized  the  subject;  (c)  the  relationship  between 
the  Levitical  ceremonial  and  the  spirit  of  the  Psalms. 

2.  What  did  the  sage  have  to  say  about  sacrifice  ?  Cf.  Job  1:5; 
22:27;  42  :  8  f.;   Prov.  7:14;   15:8;  21:27;   Eccles.  9  :  2. 

3.  From  an  examination  of  the  books  of  Maccabees  —  e.  g.,  i  Mace. 
5  :  54;  7  :33;  i  i  :  34  ;  12:11;  2  Mace,  i  :  8,  18,  23,  26,  31  ;  2  :9ff.; 
3  :  3,  6,32  ;  4:  14  ;  6:7;  9  :  16  ;  i  2  :  43  ;  13:  23;  14  :  31— determine 
the  spirit  in  which  sacrifices  were  offered  during  the  Maccabaean  period, 
and  note  any  changes  that  present  themselves. 

4.  Consider  the  subject  of  sacrifice  as  it  appears  in  the  epistle  to 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    SACRIFICE  93 

the  Hebrews,  e.  g.,  Heb.   5  :  1-3  ;   7  :  26  f.;  9  :  6  ;   10  :  18,  26  ;    11:17; 
13  :  10-16. 

5.  Consider  the  meaning  and  usage  in  the  several  documents  of  the 
various  Hebrew  words  for  sacrifice,  viz.,  n^T  ;  nnD7J  ;  tlbi}' ;  D'^'-bllJ ; 

Dm;  pnp;  n^^t^n;  min ;  nm3;  Tics.t'nm';  ri)2T\T\;  nsV^n; 

T  T  It     :'t  t   -  T  T   t:  1  v  v  v    •  t  :  t  ; 

yb3. 

Cf.  S.  R.  Driver,  article  "  Offer,  Offering,  Oblation,"  in  Hastings'  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible. 

6.  Compare  the  usages  relating  to  sacrifice  among  the  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  note  points  of  similarity  and  difference  as 
compared  with  the  usages  of  the  Hebrews. 

See  W.  R.  Smith,  article  "  Sacrifice  "  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

7.  Compare  the  usages  relating  to  sacrifice  among  the  Assyrians, 
the  Arabs,  and  the  Canaanites,  and  note  points  of  similarity  and  dif- 
ference as  compared  with  the  usages  of  the  Hebrews. 

See  especially  Paul  Haupt,  "  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitic  Ritual," 
Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  55-81  ;  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  {Index,  s.  v.  "Sacrifice  ");  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Scfnites;  L.  W. 
King,  Babylonian  Religion  and  Mythology,  pp.  210  ff.;  A.  H.  Sayce,  Babylotiians  and 
Assyrians,  pp.  245-9. 

8.  Consider  the  question  of  the  origin  of  sacrifice. 

See  W.  R.  Smith,  article  "  Sacrifice  "  in  Encyclopcedia  Britannica ;  A.  F.  Scot, 
Offering  and  Sacrifice:    An  Essay  in  Comparative  Customs  and  Religious  Development. 

9.  Prepare  a  definition  of  sacrifice  which  may  be  considered  biblical. 

10.  Consider  the  teachings  inculcated  by  sacrifice,  and  whether  these 
teachings  {a)  constituted  the  purpose  and  end  of  the  Jewish  service, 
or  {b)  pointed  to  something  beyond  and  above. 

11.  ("onsider  the  relation  of  sacrifice,  as  it  is  represented  in  the 
Old  Testament,  to  the  Christ  of  the  New  Testament. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS,    CONSIDERED    COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§  96.  The  Feasts  of  Early  Times,  that  is,  as  described  in  {a)  the 
Covenant  Code;  (^)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E;  (c)  the  pre- 
Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings;  and  (d)  the 
pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §59,  note  i).' 

1.  The  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread.^ 
Exod.  34  :  18  ;  23  :  15  ;   13:3-10. 

2.  The  Feast  of  Weeks. 
Exod.  34  :  22  ;   23  :  i6a. 

3.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

Exod.  34:22<^,-   23:16^;    i    Kings  8:2,  65  f.;    12:32;   Judg.  9:27; 
21  :  19  ff. 

4.  There  were  three  feasts  at  which  attendance  was  required  by 
law. 

Exod.  34  :  23  f.;  23  :  14-17  ;   i  Kings  9:25;   i  Sam.  i  :  3. 

5.  The  feasts  were  connected  with  agriculture. 
Exod.  23: 15  f.;  34:22  ;  Judg.  21  .  19  ff. 

6.  The  feasts  were  always  of  a  joyous  and  social  character. 
Exod.  32  :  5  f.;  Judg.  21  :  19  ff.;  i  Sam.  i  :  3,  7,  13  ff. 

7.  A  feast  often  involved  a  pilgrimage  to  some  shrine. 
Exod.  10:9;  Judg.  II  :  40  (?) ;  i  Sam.  i  :  3,  7  ;  2:19. 

8.  The  Passover. 

Exod.  34  :  25;  12:21-27. 

9.  The  Feast  of  the  New  Moon. 

Hos.  5:7(?);   iSam.  2o:5f.;  18  :  24  ff.;  2  Kings  4  :  23. 

10.  Special  feasts  were  held,  e.g.:  the  Feast  of  Sheep-Shearing; 
the  Feast  of  Jephthah's  Daughter. 

I  Sam.  25:2;  2  Sam.  13:23;  Judg.  1 1  :  40. 

11.  Idolatrous  feasts. 

Exod.  32  :  5  ;   i  Kings  1 2  :  32  f.;  2  Kings  10  :  20. 

12.  Attitude  of  the  early  prophets  toward  the  feasts. 

Amos  5:21;  8:10;  Hos.  2:11;  S:7(?);  9:5;    12:9;  Isa.  i  :  1 3  f. 
"The  following  references  are  from  J  :  Exod.  34 :  18-25 ;   12:21-27;   13:3-10; 
10  : 9  ;  the  following  are  from  E  :  Exod.  23  :  10-17  ;  32  :  5. 

'  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Covenant  Code. 
94 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  95 

§97.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider,  in  connection  with  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread, 
(a)  the  duration ;  {i>)  the  date  (to  what  part  of  our  year  did  Abib  cor 
respond?);  (c)  the  nature  and  significance  of  " unleavened  breai;"  (d) 
the  meaning  of  the  phrase,  "none  shall  appear  before  me  empty;"  (e) 
the  association  of  this  feast  with  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  and  the  point 
of  connection ;  (/)  the  seeming  identification  of  two  entirely  different 
things,  viz.,  the  Passover  (see  below)  and  the  Feast  of  Unleavened 
Bread. 

2.  Consider,  in  connection  with  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  (a)  other 
names  for  the  same  feast,  viz.,  Harvest,  First-Fruits  (Pentecost,  c/.  Acts 
2:1;  20  :  16;  I  Cor.  16  :  8) ;  {d)  the  duration  (cf.  Deut.  16  :  9-12) ;  (c) 
the  date ;  (d)  the  connection  of  this  feast  with  the  close  of  the  grain 
harvest;  {e)  the  fact  that  there  is  no  historical  mention  in  the  Old 
Testament  of  its  observance  (but  c/.  2  Mace.  12:32  and  the  New 
Testament  passages  indicated  above). 

3.  Consider,  in  connection  with  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  {a)  other 
names,  viz..  Booths  (Deut.  16:13),  Ingathering;  (b)  the  duration  {cf. 
Deut.  16  :  13-15) ;  {c)  the  date,  late  in  the  autumn  ;  (^)  the  connection 
of  this  feast  with  the  completion  of  the  harvest  of  fruit,  oil,  and  wine; 
((?)  the  lack  of  any  specific  regulations  in  the  earlier  legislation ;  (/) 
the  fact  that  historical  mention  is  made  of  only  this  feast  among  the 
three  great  feasts  (i  Sam.  i  :  i  ff.;  i  Kings  12:32;  6:38);  {£)  the 
fact  that  this  feast  seems  to  have  had  its  origin  among  the  Canaan- 
ites  (Judg.  9  :  27);  {Ji)  the  important  religious  significance  involved  in 
the  idea  that  the  deity  was  the  lord  of  the  land  and  the  dispenser  of 
its  fruits. 

4.  Consider,  in  reference  to  these  meetings  for  festal  purposes,  {a) 
the  number;  {f)  the  distribution  of  these  throughout  the  year;  {c)  the 
class  of  persons  who  were  expected  to  be  present;  {d)  the  meaning  of 
the  phrase  "  appear  before  the  Lord  ;  "  {e)  the  guarantee  given  of  safety 
upon  the  journeys  involved  in  attending  the  feasts;  (/)  the  custom  in 
Solomon's  times.    Are  any  places  mentioned  as  the  seats  of  a  festival  ? 

5.  To  what  extent  were  these  feasts  of  an  agricultural  character,  that 
is,  connected  with  agricultural  pursuits,  e.  g.,  harvest,  ingathering  of 
fruit,  etc.?  or  how  far  were  they  solar  feasts,  that  is,  connected  with 
certain  seasons  of  the  year?  What  was  the  usual  time  for  harvest  in 
Palestine?  When  did  the  end  of  the  Jewish  year  come,  and  with  what 
feast  was  it  connected  ?  Consider  the  connection  of  the  feast  at 
Shiloh  with  the  vineyards  near  at  hand.    What  particular  characteristics 


96  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

are  associated  with  agricultural  as  distinguished  from  historical  feasts  ? 
Would  the  climate,  for  example,  to  some  extent  determine  the  date  ? 
Would  the  harvest  feast  take  place  at  the  same  time  in  localities  in 
which  there  was  a  difference  of  two  or  three  weeks  in  the  period  of  the 
ripening  of  grain  ?  What  kind  of  feasts  would  be  expected  among 
people  leading  a  pastoral  life,  as  distinguished  from  an  agricultural 
life?  If  these  feasts  are  of  agricultural  origin,  could  Israel  have 
observed  them  before  becoming  an  agricultural  people,  that  is,  before 
settling  in  Canaan  ? 

6.  Are  not  harvest  and  vintage  feasts  generally  occasions  for  joy? 
Are  not  eating  and  drinking  and  dancing  the  usual  accompaniments 
of  a  feast  ?  How  far  did  the  idea  that  the  deity  was  sharing  in  the 
festivities  contribute  to  the  joyousness  of  the  occasion  ?  Did  not  the 
eating,  etc.,  contribute  to  this  end  ?  Was  not  the  very  purpose  a 
joyous  one?  Was  there  yet  any  conception  of  God  or  sin  such  as 
would  interfere  with  this  interpretation  ?  Was  there,  at  this  time,  any 
feeling  of  the  need  of  an  atonement? 

7.  (i)  Does  a  man  ordinarily  feast  by  himself  ?  (2)  If  the  social 
element  is  important,  would  it  be  necessary  to  have  places  at  which 
many  might  conveniently  come  together  ?  Would  this  not  necessarily 
involve  a  pilgrimage?  (3)  Consider  the  use  of  sacred  places,  like 
Shiloh,  for  such  meetings.  (4)  What  would  be  the  social  and  politi- 
cal influence  of  such  pilgrimages? 

8.  Consider  (i)  whether  the  Passover,  although  forming  a  part  of 
the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  is  not  treated  independently  of  that 
feast;  (2)  whether,  in  its  very  nature,  it  is  not  pastoral  (that  is,  of 
nomadic  origin),  rather  than  agricultural ;  (3)  the  meaning  of  the  name 
"Passover;"^  (4)  the  time  of  year  in  which  it  was  observed;  (5)  the 
evidence  in  Exod.  7:16;  10  :  24,  that  the  Hebrews  observed  a  spring 
festival  with  offerings  from  their  flocks  before  the  days  of  Moses ;  (6) 
the  original  significance  of  the  Passover,  viz.,  a  sacrificial  meal  in 
which  those  who  partook  united  themselves  more  closely  and  came 
into  closer  communion  with  their  God  —  all  this,  for  greater  security; 
(7)  the  connection  of  this  very  early  festival  at  a  later  time  {a)  with  the 
historical  event  of  the  exodus,  and  {b)  with  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

^Cf.  article  "Passover"  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  J.  Muller,  Kri- 
tischer  Versuch  iiber  den  Ursprung  des  Pesach-Mazzothfestes ;  NoWACK,  Hebtiiische 
Archdologie,  Vol.  II,  pp.  147  ff.,  172  ff.;  Benzinger,  Hebrdische  Archdologie,  pp.  470  ff.; 
RiEUEL,  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  319-32; 
Staue,  ibid.,  pp.  333-7;  C.  II.  Toy,  "The  Meaning  of  nOB,"  Journal  of  Biblical 
Literature,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  178  f. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  97 

9.  Is  the  Feast  of  the  New  Moon  agricultural,  or  rather  astronomi- 
cal ?  Is  it  recognized  in  the  earlier  legislation  ?  Consider  (i)  its  wide 
observance  among  Semitic  peoples;"  (2)  its  association  with  ancient 
family  sacrifices  ;  (3)  its  connection  with  the  sabbath;  (4)  its  possible 
use  by  prophets  as  a  time  for  religious  assembly;  (5)  its  mention  by 
the  prophets  (see  below);  (6)  its  great  antiquity. 

10.  Consider  the  Feast  of  Sheep- Shearing:  (i)  Was  not  this,  like 
the  Feast  of  the  New  Moon,  a  pastoral  rather  than  an  agricultural 
feast  ?  (2)  Was  it  recognized  in  legislation  ?  (3)  Could  it  be  observed 
elsewhere  than  in  a  cattle-producing  portion  of  the  country?  (4) 
How  late  in  Israel's  history  does  it  appear  to  have  come  down  ?  (5) 
Did  it  ever  take  on  any  special  religious  significance?  (6)  What,  in 
general,  did  it  celebrate  ?  Consider  the  mourning-feast  in  connec- 
tion with  the  devotion  of  Jephthah's  daughter  to  a  life  of  perpetual 
virginity,  and  compare  the  similar  cases  in  other  history. ^ 

11.  Notice  how  special  feasts  are  celebrated  in  addition  to  those 
which  became  authorized,  as  in  the  case  of  (i)  Aaron  and  the  calf,  (2) 
Jeroboam  at  Bethel,  (3)  Jehu  in  honor  of  Baal. 

12.  Consider  now  the  place  occupied  in  the  religious  life  by  these 
feasts,  and  their  influence :  (i)  To  what  extent  did  the  feasts  consti- 
tute the  religion  of  the  people?  (2)  How  far  would  men  postpone 
religious  observances  until  the  time  of  a  feast  ?  (3)  How  much  store 
did  the  ordinary  Israelite  set  by  the  feasts  ?  Would  the  threat  of 
their  extinction  disturb  him  ?  (4)  In  what  way  would  such  feasts 
serve  to  develop  national  feeling  ?  to  provide  an  education  for  the 
people?  to  encourage  the  spirit  of  unity?  (5)  To  what  extent  would 
these  assemblies  serve  to  increase  facilities  for  business  transactions  ? 
(6)  Is  there  any  evidence  that,  in  this  period,  the  people  as  a  whole 
{cf.  later  times)  engaged  in  a  great  feast  or  festival  ?  Or  is  it  rather  the 
custom  of  families  and  households?  (7)  What  did  the  prophet  say 
of  the  religious  value  of  the  feasts  ?  To  what  did  he  make  objection  ? 
(a)  the  lack  of  heart  manifested  ?  {b)  or  the  fact  that  they  were  held 
in  honor  of  other  gods  ?  or  (c)  the  fact  that  the  people  thought  the 
holding  of  these  feasts  to  constitute  the  whole  of  religion,  and 
neglected  all  that  seemed   pure  and  good  in  a  religious  life  ? 

""  Cf.  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  see  Index,  s.  v. 
Moon,"  "  Zag-muk,"  "Festivals,"  etc.;  I.  Abrahams,  article  "New  Moon"  in 
Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  See  also  Hommel,  Aufsdtze  tind  Abhandliengen 
(1900),  pp.  149-65. 

scy.  GOLDZIHER,  Mythology  among  the  Hebrews,  pp.  96  ff.,  104;  Stade.  6^^- 
schichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  p.  68  ;  G.  F.  MoORE,  A  Critical  and  Exegeticat 
Commentary  on  Judges,  pp.  304  f. 


gS  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§  98.  Constructive  Work. — Prepare  a  tabular  statement  which  will 
present  in  systematic  form  the  facts  concerning  the  feasts  of  the  earlier 
period,  as  follows:  (i)  name,  (2)  origin,  (3)  date,  (4)  duration,  (5) 
characteristic  ritual,  (6)  meaning  of  name,  (7)  religious  significance. 

§  99.  Feasts  of  the  Deuteronomic  Period,  that  is,  as  described  {a)  in 
the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  {b)  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  and  {c)  by  the  prophets  of  the  Deutero- 
nomic period.* 

1.  Passover  and  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  are  now  combined. 
Deut.  16 : 1-8, 

2.  Feast  of  Weeks. 
Deut.  16  :  9-12. 

3.  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 
Deut.  16  :  13-15  ;  31  :  10  f. 

4.  All  feasts  must  be  held  at  the  one  central  sanctuary. 
Deut.  16  :  5-7,  II,  16  ;  31:11. 

5.  The  law  still  requires  attendance  at  three  feasts. 
Deut.  16  :  16  f . 

6.  Feasts  are  still  occasions  of  joy. 

Deut.  12  :  8  ;  14  :  26  ;  16  :  11,  14  f .;  24  :  1 1  ;  Isa.  9  :  3. 

7.  Feasts  are  still  on  an  agricultural  basis. 
Deut.  16  :  9,  13  ;  cf.  16  :  i. 

8.  Attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  feasts. 

Nah.  I  :  1 5  ;  Jer.  51  :  39 ;   Lam.  1:4,  15;  2  :  6  f .,  22. 

9.  Josiah's  Passover. 
2  Kings  23  :  21-23. 

§  100.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

I.  Concerning  the  Feast  of  the  Passover  and  Unleavened  Bread, 
consider  (i)  that  the  two  feasts,  distinct  in  origin,  are  now  observed 
together;  (2)  the  association  of  the  Passover  with  the  exodus;  (3)  the 
connection  of  this  rite  with  that  of  the  firstlings  (Deut.  15  :  19  ff.);  (4) 
the  duration  ;  (5)  the  lack  of  any  designation  of  the  day  of  the  month  ; 
(6)  the  significance  of  the  unleavened  bread,  and  its  historical  connec- 
tion ;  (7)  the  treatment  of  any  remaining  flesh;  (8)  the  place  at  which 
this  feast  shall  be  observed;  (9)  the  change  in  ritual  and  conception 
which  takes  place  in  the  case  of  the  Passover  feast,  and  the  reason  for 
this;  (10)  the  circumstances  leading  to  the  coalescence  of  the  two 
feasts. 

*  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  FEASTS  99 

2.  Concerning  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  notice  (i)  that  the  time  is  fixed 
in  connection  with  that  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  viz.,  seven 
weeks,  the  fiftieth  day;  (2)  the  duration  ;  (3)  the  persons  who  are  to  be 
invited  to  the  feast;  (4)  the  place;  (5)  the  joyous  character;  (6)  the 
historical  reminiscence  suggested. 

3.  Concerning  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  consider  (i)  the  name  and 
its  origin  {cf.  i  Sam.  i  :  8);  (2)  the  time  (no  particular  day  designated); 
(3)  the  persons  who  are  to  participate;  (4)  the  duration  ;  (5)  the  place; 
(6)  the  motive  ;  (7)  the  joyous  character. 

4.  Consider  the  meaning  of  the  constantly  recurring  phrase,  "  in  the 
place  which  Jehovah  thy  God  shall  choose  to  cause  his  name  to  dwell 
there;"  is  it  (i)  a  place,  at  one  time  in  one  locality,  at  another  time  in 
another  locality,  and  consequently,  in  the  course  of  time,  are  several 
places  thus  designated  ?  Or  (2)  is  it  one  central  place  for  all  time, 
viz.,  Jerusalem  ?  (3)  Consider  some  of  the  consequences  which  would 
follow  such  centralization  ;  e.  g.:  (a)  Would  the  feast  thus  transferred 
to  Jerusalem  continue  its  agricultural  or  pastoral  character  ?  (fi)  If  a 
particular  day  is  fixed,  could  the  harvest  feast  any  longer  be  connected 
with  the  harvest,  which,  on  account  of  difference  of  climate,  occurred 
at  widely  separated  dates  ?  (e)  Would  the  historical  be  likely  to  sup- 
plant the  natural  interpretation  of  the  feast  ?  (d)  Would  the  original 
ritual  also  lose  its  significance  ?  (e)  Could  the  firstlings  actually  be 
taken  to  Jerusalem  to  be  sacrificed  ?  (/)  Could  the  head  of  a  family 
take  the  entire  family  and  dependents  to  Jerusalem  ?  (g)  Would  he 
sell  his  own  animal  or  grain,  and  then  go  to  Jerusalem  and  buy  (Deut. 
14  : 24-26)?  Would  this  affect  commerce?  (/i)  Could  a  man,  in  this 
case,  arrange  a  sacrificial  meal  in  Jerusalem  and  have  his  family  and 
friends  with  him,  as  in  the  village  or  country?  (/)  Would  not  this  lead 
to  an  entire  change  in  the  feeling  connected  with  the  observance  of 
the  feast  ?  Would  the  observance  become  more  general  and  less 
individual,  more  formal  and  serious,  and  less  joyous  ? 

5.  Although  the  law  still  required  attendance  at  these  feasts,  is  it 
possible  to  suppose  that  any  considerable  proportion  of  the  people 
could  leave  their  homes  and  their  work,  and  go  to  Jerusalem  three 
times  in  a  year?  Would  this  have  the  effect  of  depriving  these  people 
of  religious  privileges? 

6.  Although  the  feasts  are  represented  as  still  continuing  their 
joyous  character,  could  the  old  feeling  actually  have  existed  under  the 
new  regime,  cut  off  as  the  worshiper  was  from  friends  and  familv,  lost 
as  he  must  have  been  in  the  great  crowds  gathering  at  Jerusalem  ? 


100  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

7.  Although  feasts  are  still  nominally  on  •  an  agricultural  basis 
(cf.  the  names,  the  method  of  determining  the  date,  etc.),  will  it  be 
possible  for  the  agricultural  character  to  be  long  maintained  in  view 
of  (i)  the  detachment  of  the  feasts  from  the  exact  season  (one  time 
being  fixed  for  the  entire  country,  although  the  harvest  took  place  at 
different  dates  on  account  of  climate);  (2)  their  association  with  his- 
torical events  and  the  emphasis  thus  placed  on  the  idea  of  com- 
memoration ;  (3)  the  necessary  sale  of  one's  own  effects,  and  the 
purchase  of  others  for  the  purpose  of  the  feast  ? 

8.  Upon  the  supposition  that  the  prophets  themselves  had  to  do 
with  the  formulation  of  the  policy  presented  in  Deuteronomy,  and  in 
view  of  the  opinions  expressed  by  Amos,  Hosea,  and  Isaiah,  what  may 
we  understand  to  have  been  their  general  position  on  the  subject  of 
these  feasts  and  festivals  ?  Did  they  represent  the  feasts  as  being  an 
essential  element  in  the  religious  life  ?  Did  they  wish  to  see  them 
modified  in  their  character  ?  Was  it  for  this  reason  that  they  joined 
with  the  priests  in  those  reforms,  recorded  in  Deuteronomy,  which  in 
the  end  largely  revolutionized  the  whole  system  ?  Did  they  think  that 
the  people  were  placing  a  false  value  upon  these  feasts  in  comparison 
with  a  pure  and  simple  life? 

9.  Upon  the  acceptance  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  by  Josiah  and 
his  people  in  621  B.  C,  (i)  what  attitude  was  taken  by  the  king 
toward  the  various  corrupt  forms  of  worship  which  existed  at  that  time 
(f/.  Deut.  23  :  4-20)  ?  (2)  What  was  the  command  issued  as  to  the 
observance  of  the  Passover  ?  Does  this  mean  that  it  had  fallen  into 
disuse  ?  If  so,  how  is  such  disuse  to  be  explained  ?  (3)  What  was  the 
character  of  the  Passover  observed  on  this  occasion  ? 

§  10 1.  Constructive  Work. — Write  a  statement  covering  three  points  : 
(i)  the  feasts  which  now  no  longer  seerii  to  be  observed,  and  the  rea- 
sons ;  (2)  the  modifications  which  have  come  to  exist  in  the  feasts 
transmitted  from  the  earlier  period,  and  an  explanation  of  these 
modifications;  (3)  the  progress,  if  any,  which  has  been  made  in  the 
adaptation  of  the  ceremonial  of  worship  (so  far  as  it  concerned  feasts) 
to  the  religious  life ;  or,  to  use  the  form  of  a  question,  was  Israel  in  a 
better  or  worse  position  for  the  cultivation  of  the  religious  life,  with 
the  changes  which  had  now  come  about  ? 

§102.  Constructive  Work. —  From  Ezek.  36:38;  45:17.  18-21, 
22-25  j  46  :  I,  3,  6  ff.,  9,  consider  (i)  whether,  in  general,  Ezekiel  has 
much  to  say  upon  the  subject.  Is  this  because  his  development  lies 
along  other  lines,  or  because  the  development  has  already  reached  its 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  10 1 

highest  point?  (2)  Is  there  evidence  (if  so,  what?)  that  the  Deutero- 
nomic  system  of  feasts  is  accepted  ?  (3)  In  what  cases  are  definite 
dates  now  given,  in  which,  hitherto,  the  time  has  been  left  undesig- 
nated ?  (4)  What,  now,  is  the  relation  of  the  Feast  of  the  Passover  to 
that  of  Unleavened  Bread  ?  (5)  Present  the  evidence,  if  any  is  to  be 
found,  that  the  feasts  have  now  lost  their  joyous  character.  (6)  Is  the 
centralization  of  worship  involved  in  the  arrangements  which  Ezekiel 
proposes  ? 

§  103.  The  Feasts  in  the  Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described  (a)  in  the 
laws  of  the  Levitical  code,  {/>)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and  {c)  in  the 
priestly  histories,  viz.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles.' 

1.  Feast  of  the  Passover  and  Unleavened  Bread. 

Lev.  23  :  4-8  ;    Numb.  28  :  16-25  ;    9  :  1-14  ;    Exod.  12  :  1-20,  43-50  ;  2 
Chron,  8:13;  30:13-27;  35:1-19;  Ezra  6:  19-22. 

2.  Feast  of  Weeks. 

Lev.  23  :  15-21  ;  Numb.  28  :  26-31 ;  2  Chron.  8:13. 

3.  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

Lev.   23:34-36,  39-44;  Numb.  29:12-38;   2  Chron.  5:3!?.;  7:8-10; 
8:  13;  Ezra  3:4;  Neb.  8:  13-18. 

4.  Feast  of  the  New  Moon. 

Numb.  28: 11-15;  I  Chron.  23  :3i ;  2  Chron,  8:13;  31  :  3;  Ezra  3:5; 
Neh.  10:33. 

5.  Feast  of  Trumpets. 

Lev.  23  :  23-25  ;  Numb.  29  :  1-6  ;  10  :  10. 

6.  Definite  dates  are  fixed. 

Lev.  23  :  5,  6,  23,  27,  34,  39  ;  Numb.,  chaps.  28,  29;  Esther  9:21. 

7.  Agricultural  significance  is  wholly  lost. 
Lev.  23  :  42  f . 

8.  Celebration  of  feasts  at  Jerusalem  is  taken  for  granted. 
Zech.  14  :  16-19  ;   i  Chron.  23  :  31  ;  2  Chron.  35  :  1-19. 

9.  Sacrifices  are  multiplied  in  connection  with  feasts. 
Numb.,  chap.  29  ;  15  :  3  ;  2  Chron.  2:4;  30  :  24  ;  35  :  7-9. 

10.  Attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  feasts. 
Zech.  14  :  16-19;  Joel  1:14;  2:15. 

11.  Thought  of  sin  predominant  in  feasts. 

Lev.  23:19;  chap.  16;  Numb.  28:15,  22,  30;  29:5.   ".  16.  ^9>  22,  25, 
28,  31,  34,  38  ;  Exod.  30  :  10. 

12.  Day  of  Atonement. 

Lev.  23:  27-32  ;  chap.  16  ;  Numb.  29  :  7-1 1  ;  Exod.  30:  10. 
7  References  in  bold-face  type  are  froni  the  Levitical  code  of  laws. 


102  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

13.  Feast  of  Purim. 

Esther  8:17;  9  :  15-32. 
§  104.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  In  the  later  regulations  and  references  relating  to  the  Feast  of 
\\\^  Passover  and  Unleavetied  Bread,  note  (i)  the  new  phrases,  "set 
feasts,"  "holy  convocations,"  "appointed  seasons;"  (2)  the  exactness 
with  which  the  date  is  fixed;  (3)  the  absence  of  "servile  work  ;"  (4) 
the  burnt-offering,  and  the  meal-offering  prescribed,  the  sin-offering 
which  accompanies,  and  all  this  beside  the  continual  burnt-offering; 
(5)  that  in  time  {cf.  Exod.  12  :  1-20)  the  opinion  comes  to  prevail  that 
the  Passover  had  been  established  before  the  exodus  "in  order  that 
Jehovah  might  spare  the  firstborn  of  Israel,  not  because  he  had  spared 
them;"  (6)  the  restrictions  placed  upon  participation  in  the  Passover 
(Exod.  12:43-50);  (7)  the  observance  according  to  Chronicles  (2 
Chron.  30:13-27)  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  in  Hezekiah's 
times;  (8)  Josiah's  Passover  (2  Chron.  35:  1-19);  (9)  Ezra's  Passover; 
(10)  the  place  of  all  these  observances;  (11)  their  general  character; 
(12)  that  the  offerings  have  the  nature  of  fixed  dues,  rather  than  of 
voluntary  gifts. 

2.  In  the  references  to  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  note  (i)  that  the  same 
general  characteristics  appear  as  in  the  case  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened 
Bread  (see  above)  ;  (2)  that  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  it  becomes  a 
feast  commemorating  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Sinai,  and  is  no  longer 
considered  a  nature  feast. 

3.  In  the  references  to  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  note  (i)  the  same 
points  as  were  considered  above  in  the  case  of  the  preceding  feasts, 
viz.,  fixing  of  date,  multiplication  of  various  kinds  of  offerings  for  each 
day,  no  servile  work,  etc.;  (2)  the  chronicler's  account  of  Solomon's 
observance  of  this  feast  in  connection  with  the  bringing  up  of  the  ark 
(2  Chron.  5:3ff.);  (3)  Solomon's  dedication  of  the  temple  in  con- 
nection with  this  same  feast  (2  Chron.  7  :  8-10);  (4)  the  observance  in 
connection  with  the  beginning  of  the  second  temple  (Ezra  3:4);  (5) 
the  dwelling  in  booths  in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  8:  13-18). 

4.  The  system  of  feasts  now  includes  more  definitely  the  Feast  of 
the  New  Moon,  concerning  which  it  may  be  noted,  (i)  that  a  regular 
ceremonial  is  instituted;  (2)  that  frequent  mention  is  made  of  it  in 
connection  with  the  sabbath.  Consider  (3)  what  has  led  to  this  larger 
emphasis. 

5.  Consider,  in  the  case  of  the  Feast  of  Tnnnpets,  (1)  its  connec- 
tion with   the  sabbatical    system;®    (2)    the    provisions   given    for  its 

^See  chap.  ix. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  IO3 

observance  ;    (3)  the  general  provision  for  the   blowing  of   trumpets 
with  various  feasts. 

6.  In  all  the  cases  presented  consider  (i)  the  fact  that  now  the 
exact  day  of  the  month  is  prescribed  ;  (2)  the  significance  of  this  fact, 
as  compared  with  the  looser  designations  of  earlier  regulations. 

7.  In  all  the  cases  presented  consider  (i)  the  fact  that  the  agri- 
cultural significance  has  been  lost ;  (2)  the  fact  that,  even  in  the  case 
of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (the  last  of  all  to  receive  this  treatment), 
a  historical  meaning  has  been  suggested  and  adopted;  (3)  the  signifi- 
cance of  these  facts  as  seen  in  the  routine  of  the  ceremonial  and  the 
general  character  of  the  feasts. 

8.  Consider  (i)  whether,  although  no  explicit  statement  occurs  in 
the  legislative  material  covering  the  point,  it  is  not  everywhere  taken 
for  granted  that  all  feasts  shall  be  celebrated  at  one  place,  viz.,  Jerusa- 
lem ;  and  (2)  whether  this  is  not  the  understanding  of  the  prophets 
and  historians  of  the  period. 

9.  Consider,  in  the  case  of  all  the  feasts,  (i)  whether  the  largest 
emphasis  is  not  now  placed  upon  the  sacrifice;  (2)  whether,  in  fact, 
with  the  great  multiplication  of  sacrifices,  everything  else  is  not  prac- 
tically ignored;  (3)  the  influence  of  this  upon  the  people;  (4)  the 
explanation  of  it. 

10.  What  appears  to  have  been  the  attitude  of  the  later  prophets 
toward  these  feasts?  Is  there  any  longer  indifference,  lack  of  appre- 
ciation, or  hostility?  Why  has  this  change  of  attitude  come  about? 
Does  Judaism  (Israel's  religion  after  the  exile)  adopt  an  entirely  new 
policy  in  reference  to  feasts,  as  compared  with  prophetism  (Israel's 
religion  before  the  exile)?  Were  the  prophets  of  this  period  really 
priests,  and,  in  consequence,  in  sympathy  with  everything  priestly  ? 
Had  prophecy  now  died  ? 

11.  Is  it  a  fact  that  the  idea  of  sin  is  now  everywhere  promi- 
nent ?  that,  indeed,  this  idea  is  the  controlling  idea?  that,  therefore, 
confession  instead  of  rejoicing  is  the  order  of  the  day  ?  If  this  is  the 
fact,  how  is  it  to  be  explained  ? 

12.  Concerning  the  Day  of  Atonement,  one  may  undertake  to 
answer  the  following  questions:  (i)  Was  it  observed  in  the  early  or 
middle  period,  or  did  its  observance  arise  only  in  the  later  period? 
(2)  Is  there  any  connection  between  it  and  Ezekiel's  days  of  atonement 
(45:18-20)?  (3)  Or  with  the  days  of  fasting  held  in  commemoration 
of  national  calamities  mentioned  in  Zech.  7  :  35  ;  8  :  19  ?  (4)  Or  with 
the  day  of  fasting  (the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the  month)  mentioned  in 


104  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Neh.  9:1?  (5)  What  was  the  fundamental  idea  in  this  observance? 
Was  propitiation  thought  of  as  being  made  in  behalf  of  the  individual  or  of 
the  nation?  Were  the  sanctuary  and  the  land  also  included  ?  (6)  What 
evidence  does  the  ritual  furnish  as  to  the  fundamental  idea  ?  (7)  What 
is  the  meaning  of  the  phrases  "sabbath  of  solemn  rest,"  "afflict  your 
souls"  (Lev.  i6:  31)?  (8)  What  conception  of  God  gave  rise  to  the 
idea  of  sin  involved  in  this  institution  ? 

13.  In  the  case  of  the  Feast  of  Purim  consider  (i)  its  origin  and 
occasion;  (2)  its  date;  (3)  the  question  of  its  connection  (a)  with  a 
Persian  feast,  {B)  with  a  Babylonian  feast ;  (4)  the  meaning  of  the 
name  ;   (5)  the  method  of  observance.^ 

§  105.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  show 
the  more  important  differences  in  the  observance  of  the  feasts  between 
the  usage  of  the  middle  period  and  that  of  the  later  period. 

§  106.  Literature  to  Be  Consulted. 

A,  P.  Stanley,  Lectures  on  the  Histo?y  of  the  Jewish  Church,  Vol.  I,  Appendix 
xxi  —  The  Samaritan  Passover  (1862);  S.  Clark,  article  "Passover,"  Smith's  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893) ;  Ewald,  Antiquities  of  Israel  (3d  ed. 
1866,  transl.  1876),  pp.  348-80;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1869, 
5th  ed.  1896,  transl.  1892),  Vol.  I,  pp.  359-69;  II,  87-100,  402  ff.;  KuENEN,  Religion 
of  Israel  {\%tq  f.,  transl.  1874),  Vol.  I,  pp.  242-5,  262-7  ;  H,  PP-  28-30,  89-94,  253  U 
271-3;  III,  pp.  148-53;  Oehler,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1873,  transl.  1883), 
§§140,  141,  144-6,  150,  153-6;  Edersheim,  The  Temple:  Its  Ministry  and  Services 
(1874),  pp.  144-300;  W.R.Smith,  article  "Passover  and  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread," 
Encyclopcedia  Britannica  (1875);  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel 
(1878,  transl.  1885),  pp.  83-120;  W.  R.  Smith,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish 
Church  (ist  ed.  1881,  2d  ed.),  pp.  240,  269  ;  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel  (ist  ed. 
1882,  2d  ed.  1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feasts;"  Edersheim,  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus 
the  Messiah  (ist  ed.  1883),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Dedication,"  "Feasts,"  "Passover,"  etc.; 
W.  H.  Green,  The  Hebrew  Feasts  in  Their  Relation  to  Recent  Critical  Hypotheses 
Concerning  the  Pentateuch  (1885);  E.  ScHURER,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the 
Time  of  cyzrw/(i885,  transl.  1890),  passim;  Piepenbring,  Theology  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (1886,  transl.  1893),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feast,"  "  Passover,"  etc.;  Sayce,  Reli- 
gion of  the  Ancient  Babylonians  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1887),  pp.  64-9;  Doughty, 
Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta,Yo\.  I  (1888),  pp.  50-84,  190-214;  W.  R.  Sunn,  Reli- 
gion of  the  Semites  (isted.  1889,  2d  ed.  1894),  pp.  252-8;  RoB^KTSO-a,  Early  Religion 
of  Israel  {iSSg),  pp.  363,  372,  378,  385,  397,  401;  W.  St.  Chad  Boscawen,  "The 

9  Cf.  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  pp.  686  ff.; 
ZlMMERN,  Zeitschrift  fit r  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  157-69;  De 
Lagarde,  Purim — Ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  Religion;  Sayce,  Proceedings  of 
the  Society  of  Biblical  Arc hcEology,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  280 ;  Jensen,  Wiener  Zeitschrift  fiir 
die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes,Vo\.  VI,  p.  70;  C.  II.  Toy,  "Esther  as  a  Babylonian 
Goddess,"  iW'w  World,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  130-45  ;  Alexander  Kohut,  American  Journal 
of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  192  f. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  IO5 

Babylonian  and  Jewish  Festivals,"  Babylonian  and  Oriental  Record,  Vol  IV  ( 1890),  pp. 
34-8  ;  C.  J.  Ball,  article  "Festivals,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893); 
H.  C.  Trumbull,  Tlie  Blood  Covejtatit  {i'i()2>)t  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feasting;"  idem. 
Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life  (1894),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feast;"  idem.  The  Threshold 
Covenant  {iSg6),  pp.  203-12,  266;  H.  B,  Tristram,  Eastern  Customs  in  Bible  Lands, 
(1894),  pp.  69-86;  Sayce,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archceology,  Vol. 
XIX  (1897),  pp.  280  f.;  E.  E,  Harding,  article  "Feasts  and  Fasts,"  Hastings' 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1898);  S.  R.  Driver  and  H.  A.  White,  article  "Day  of 
Atonement,"  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1898);  A.  Kohut,  "The  Talmudic 
Records  of  the  Persian  and  Babylonian  Festivals  Critically  Illustrated,"  American 
Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XIV  (1898),  pp.  182-94  {cf.  Revue 
des  etudes  j'uives,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp. 256-71);  Morris  Jastrow  ,]r..  Religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  (1898),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Festivals;"  C.  H.  Toy,  "The  Meaning  of 
TXC^,'' Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XVI  (1898),  pp.  178  f.;  I.  Benzinger 
AND  T.  K.  Cheyne,  article  " Day  of  Atonement,"  ^«0'f/o/^?a'2a  Biblica  (iSgg);  W. 
W.  Fowler,  77^,?  Roman  Festivals  of  the  Period  of  the  Republic  {\%gg);  Warren, 
"Dates  on  Which  Paschal  Full  Moons  Occur,"  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly 
Statement,  October,  1900;  Fairbanks,  "Festival  Epidauria  at  Athens,"  Classical 
Review,  November,  1900;  Frazer,  "The  Saturnalia  and  Kindred  Festivals,"  ^or^- 
nightly  Review,  October  and  November,  1900;  Duff,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol. 
II  (1900),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Feasts;"  I.  Abrahams,  article  "Nevi^  Moon,"  Hastings' 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1900);  I.  Benzinger,  article  "Feasts,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica 
(1901);  Willis,  The  Worship  of  the  Old  Covenant,  pp.  190-214;  Watson,  Catrtbridge 
Co?npanion  to  the  Bible,  pp.  411-17  ;  Farnell,  The  Cults  of  the  Greek  States,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  648  f. ;  McCurdy,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments  (1895-1901),  see  Indtx, 
s.  V.  "  Feasts." 

J.  Spencer,  De  legibus  Hebraeorum  ritualibus  (2d  ed.  1686),  III,  Diss,  viii;  J. 
Meyer,  De  festis  Hebraeorum  (1724);  F.  C.  Baur,  "Ueber  die  urspriingliche  Bedeu- 
tung  des  Passahfestes  und  des  Beschneidungsritus,"  Tiibinger  Zeitschrift,  1832,  I, 
40-124;  idem,  "  Der  hebraische  Sabbath  und  die  Nationalfeste  des  mosaischen  Cultus," 
ibid.,  1832,  III,  123-92  ;  Vatke,  Die  Religion  des  Alien  Testamentes  (1835),  Vol.  I,  pp. 
492-8  ;  J.  F.  L.  George, Die  dlteren  jiidischen  Feste{\'i},^);  H.  Ewald,  in  Gbttingischer 
Gelehrter  Anzeiger,  1835,  pp.  2025  f.;  1836,  pp.  678  f.;  H.  Ewald,  in  fahrbiicher 
der  biblischen  IVissenschaft,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  131  f.;  VIII,  p.  223;  IX,  pp.  257  f.;  F.  HiTZiG, 
Ostern  und  PJingsten  (1837);  BAhk,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Cultus  (1839),  Vol.  II, 
pp.  664  ff.;  H.  Ewald,  "  De  feriarum  hebraearum  origine  et  ratione,"  Zeitschrift fiir 
die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes,Yo\.  HI  (1840),  pp.  410-41;  H.  Hupfeld,  De  primi- 
tiva  et  vera  festorum  apud  Hebraeos  ratione  ex  legum  Mosaicarum  eruenda  (1851-65); 
Redslob,  Die  biblischen  Angaben  iiber  Stiftung  und  Grund  der  Passahfeier  {i^^d); 
W.  ScHULTZ,  "Die  innere  Bedeutung  der  alttestamentlichen  Yesie,"  Deutsche  Zeit- 
schrift fiir  christliche  Wissenschaft  utid  christliches  Leben,  1857,  pp.  23-30;  JoH. 
Bachmann,  Die  Festgesetze  des  Pentateuch  aufs  neue  kritisch  untersucht  (1858); 
Dillmann,  article  "P'este,"  Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexicon  (1869);  H.  Oort,  "De  groote 
Verzoendag,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,Yo\.X  {i^-]b),  pp.  142-65;  D.  Hoffmann,  in 
Berliner's  Magazin,  1876,  pp.  i  ff. ;  idem,  Abhandlungen  iiber  die  Pentateuch- 
Gesetze,Yo\.l  (1878);  idem,  in  Magazin  fir  die  Wissenschaft  des  Judenthums,  1879,  PP- 
99  ff. ;  Franz  DelitzscH,  in  Zeitschrift  fiir  kirchliche  Wissenschaft  u>i,t  kirchliches 
Leben,  Vol.  I  (1880),  pp.  173-83,621  ff. ;    Kuenen,  in    Theologisch    Tijdschrift,Yo\. 


I06  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    JN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

XVII  (1883),  pp.  207-12;  '^ijl.l.-e.^,  Krieisc/ier  Versuck  iiber  den  Ursprung  des  Pesach- 
Mazzothfestcs  (1883);  Adler,  "  Der  Versohnungstag  in  der  Bibel,  sein  Ursprung  und 
seine  Bedeutung,"  Z^ilschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,'Wo\.  Ill  (1883) 
pp.  178-85  ;  Orelli,  articles  "  Passah,"  "Pfingstfest,"  Rcalencyklopddie  fiir  protestan- 
tische  Theologie  imd  Kirche  (2d  ed.  1883);  Franz  Delitzsch,  article  "Passah,' 
Riehm's  Handworterbuch  des  biblischen  Alterthums  (1884);  Riehm,  article  "  Feste,' 
Riehm's  Handworterbuch  des  biblischen  Alterthums  (1884);  Oreli.i,  article  "Ver- 
sohnungstag," Rcalencyklopddie  fiir  protestantische  Theologie  und Kirche  (7.^  ed.  1885); 
De  Lagarde,  "  Purim ;  ein  Beitrag  zur  Religionsgeschichte,"  Mittheilungen,  Vol.  II 
(1887),  pp.  378  £f.;  IV,  p.  147,  note  i;  Wellhausen,  Reste  des  arabischen  Heidentums 
{—Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  Vol.  Ill,  1887),  pp.  75-98;  B.  SThVi-E,  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel  (1887  f.),  Vol.  I,  pp.  497-503;  II,  pp.  182,  258-60;  I.  Benzinger,  "  Das 
Gesetz  iiber  den  grossen  Versohnungstag,  Lev.  XVI,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alitestatnent' 
liche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  IX  (1889),  pp.  65-88;  RiEHM,  Alitesiatnetitliche  Theologie 
(1889),  pp.  121-3;  H.  ZiMMERN,  "Zur  Frage  nach  dem  Ursprunge  des  Purimfestes," 
Zeitschrift fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft^  1 891,  pp.  157-69;  Smend,  Lehrbuch 
der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Feste;"  W.  NowACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdoiogie  (1894),  Vol.  II,  pp. 
138-203;  I.  Benzinger,  Hebrdische  Archdoiogie  (1894),  pp.  464-78;  Eerdmans, 
"Der  Ursprung  der  Ceremonien  des  Hosein-Festes,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyriologie, 
Vol.  IX  (1894),  pp.  290  f . ;  S.  Karppe,  "Melanges  de  critique  biblique  et  d'assyrio- 
logie,"  Revue  semitique.  Vol.  II  (1894),  pp.  146-51  ;  Dillmann,  Alttestamentliche 
Theologie  (1895),  see  Index,  f.  v.  "Feste,"  "Passah;"  K.  Marti,  Geschichte  der 
israelitischen  Religion  (1897),  see  /waV.af,  j.  z/.  "  Feste,"  "  Pesach,"  "Laubhiittenfest." 
etc.;  F.  Buhl,  "Gottesdienstliche  Zeiten  im  Alten  Testament,"  Realencyklopddie fiir 
protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (1899);  Schaefer,  Das  Passah- Alazzoth  Fest 
(1900);  Erbt,  Purimsage  in  der  Bibel  {igoo);  MOSSA,  "Bedeutung  des  Passahfestes," 
Saat  auf  Hoffnung,  1900,  No.  2;  RiEDEL,  "Miscellen  5.  6.:  HCS,  HdlUn  ni523," 
Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XX  (1900),  pp.  319-32;  B. 
Stade,  "Nachwort  zu  Lie.  W.  Riedel's  5.  Miscelle:  HOD,"  ibid.,  pp.  333-7;  C. 
Brockelmann,  "  Das  Neujahrsfest  der  Jezidis,"  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgen- 
Idndischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  LV  (1901),  pp.  388  ff. 

§107.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Consider  the  few  references  to  the  celebration  of  feasts  and  feast 
days  in  the  Psalter,  viz.,  Pss.  4:7;  81:3;  and  note  especially  the 
so-called  Psalms  of  Ascents,  viz.,  120-134,  and  their  use  in  worship.'" 

2.  Put  together  the  references  to  feasts  in  the  books  of  Maccabees, 
viz.:  I  Mace,  i  :  39,  45  ;  4  :  52-59  ;  7  :  49  ;  10  :  34  ;  13  :  50-52  ;  2  Mace. 
I  :  9,  18;  2  :9,  16;  6:6f.;  7  142;  8  :  33  ;  10  :  5-8  ;  12  :  31  f.;  15  :  36  ; 
and  make  such  a  stateme-nt  as  the  material  thus  examined  will  warrant. 

3.  Consider  the  principal  references  to  feasts  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, viz.:    Matt.   26:2,  5,   17  ff.;   27:15;    Mark   14:  if.,   12,   14,   16; 

'°67.  Wellhausen,  The  Book  of  Psalms  —  A  New  English  Translation,  p. 
210;  KiRKPATRiCK,  The  Psalms,  Books  //,///(" Cambridge  Bible"),  p.  xxv  ;  Mur- 
ray, Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Psalms,  pp.  292-5  ;  Perowne,  Book  of  Psalms,  Vol.  I, 
pp. 86f.;  Smith,  "The  Songs  of  the  Ascent,"  Expository  Times,  November,  1900. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    FEASTS  10/ 

15:6;  Luke  2:4if.;  22:1-15;  23:17;  John  2:13,  23;  4:45; 
5:1;  6:4;  7:2-14,37;  10:22;  ii:55f.;  12:1,12,20;  13:1,29; 
18  :  2S,  39  ;    19:14;    I  Cor.  5:7;    Heb.  11:28. 

4.  Take  up  for  critical  study  the  principal  Hebrew  words  used  to 
designate    the   feasts,  viz.:   tiCS ,   jn,   niyT^U    jm  ,   'H^llpn    jH ;    jH 

-f cb^n ;  trozri  :" ;  inn ;  Tr\-i-2  T  d^^ib  ;  etc. 

5.  Compare,  in  a  very  general  way,  the  usage  concerning  feasts 
among  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  and  note  points 
of  similarity  and  difference." 

6.  Consider  the  place  of  feasts  among  the  Assyrians,  noticing 
especially  the  great  number  of  them  and  the  many  points  of  similarity 
existing  between  the  usages  of  Assyrian  feasts  and  those  of  Hebrew 
feasts,  e.  g.,  the  pervading  spirit  of  joyousness,  the  agricultural  con- 
nection of  some  of  them,  the  similarity  between  the  feast  of  Zag- 
muk  and  the  Jewish  New  Year's  festival,  and  the  Babylonian  origin  of 
the  Feast  of  Purim.'^ 

7.  Study  the  Hebrew  feasts  in  their  relation  to  (a)  the  Arabic  feasts 
or  pilgrimages,  (d)  the  Canaanite  agricultural  feasts.'^ 

8.  Consider  comparatively  the  three  great  factors  entering  into 
and  controlling  the  origin  and  development  of  feasts,  viz.,  the  element 
involved  in  a  nomadic  or  pastoral  life,  that  in  an  agricultural  life,  and 
that  in  a  city  life. 

9.  Consider  (i)  the  conception  of  God  which  had  come  to  be 
supreme  in  Israel  after  the  exile,  viz.,  holiness;  (2)  the  relation  of 
this  conception  to  the  teaching  concerning  sin  prevalent  in  the  same 
period  ;  and  (3)  the  influences  of  these  conceptions  upon  the  devel- 
opment of  the  feast  system. 

"  See  W.  W.  Fowler,  T/ie  Roman  Festivals  of  the  Period  of  the  Republic;  Fair- 
banks, "Festival  Epidauria  at  Athens,"  Classical  Review, '^o\emhtr,  1900  ;  Frazer, 
•'The  Saturnalia  and  Kindred  YesiwaXs,''  Fortnightly  Review,  Ociohcr  and  Novem- 
ber, 1900  ;  Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Festivals." 

"Cyi  especially  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  A'f//o-/i7«  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  i&t 
Index,  s.  v.  "Festivals." 

'3  See  Snouck  Hurgronje,  Het  Mekkaansche  Fest;  Doughty,  Traveh  in  Arabia 
Deserta;  Wellhausen,  Reste  des  arabischen  Heidentums ;  and  other  literature  cited 
in  §  106. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE     LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH    AND    KINDRED 
INSTITUTIONS,  CONSIDERED  COMPARATIVELY. 

§  1 08.  The  Sabbath  and  Kindred  Institutions   in   the   Early  Period, 

/.  e.,  as  described  in  {a)  the  Covenant  Code,  {b)  the  historical  material 
of  J  and  E,  [c)  the  pre-Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Sanauel,  and 
Kings,  and  {d)  the  pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §  59, 
note  i).' 

1.  The  law  of  the  sabbath. '^ 
Exod.  34  :  21  ;   20  :  8-11  ;  23  :  12. 

2.  Customs  connected  with  the  sabbath. 
2  Kings  4:23;    II  :  5,  7,  9. 

3.  Attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  the  sabbath. 
Amos  8:5;    Hos.  2:11;  Isa.  1:13. 

4.  The  law  of  the  sabbatical  year. 
Exod.  23  :  10  f.;  21:2-11. 

§  109.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

I.  Consider,  in  examining  the  statements  made  concerning  the 
sabbath,  (i)  why  the  sabbath  is  the  only  religious  institution  men- 
tioned in  the  decalogue ;  (2)  the  first  word,  remember,  and  compare 
the  first  word  in  Deut.  5:12,  observe.  (3)  Was  either  of  these  in  any 
sense  a  warning  equivalent  to  "take  care,"  "be  on  the  lookout  for"  ? 
(4)  What  is  the  logical  relation  of  the  fourth  commandment  to  the 
third,  second,  and  first?  Does  this  consist  in  its  having  originally 
had  to  do  with  the  deity,  as  do  the  preceding  ?  (5)  Are  there  other 
variations  between  the  two  forms  of  the  commandment  given  in  Exod., 
chap.  20,  and  Deut.,  chap.  5  ?  What  are  the  variations?  How  shall 
we  explain  the  existence  of  any  variations  at  all  ?  Is  it  possible  that 
Exod.  20  :  9-1 1  and  Deut.  5  :  13-15  are  later  additions  made  at  differ- 
ent times  to  an  earlier  form,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sixth,  seventh, 
and    eighth  commandments,  consisted   of    only  two  or  three   words, 

•The  following  references  are  from  E  :  Exod.  20  :  8-10 ;  23:10-12;  2i:2-ii; 
the  only  reference  in  J  is  Exod.  34  :  21. 

'References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Covenant  Code. 
108 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH  1 O9 

"Observe  (or  remember)  the  sabbath  day  to  keep  it  holy  "?^  (6)  What 
was  involved  in  the  command  to  keep  it  holy  ?  (7)  What  may  be  said 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  sabbath  ?  Was  it  probably  observed  by  the 
Hebrews  in  Egypt?  (8)  Was  it  originally  connected  with  the  new 
moon  ?  (9)  What  are  the  chief  considerations  offered  to  show  that  it 
was  originally  a  day  for  securing  the  good-will  of  the  deity,  /.  e.,  a  day 
on  which  Jehovah  rested  from  his  anger,  and  was,  therefore,  more 
easy  to  propitiate ;  a  day,  however,  which  might  prove  to  be  unfavor- 
able, but  which  might  be  changed  to  a  favorable  day  by  doing  or  not 
doing  certain  things?''  (10)  What,  if  this  view  is  adopted,  would  be 
understood  in  particular  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  word  rest?  of  the 
word  observe?  (11)  How  did  such  strong  emphasis  come  to  be  placed 
upon  the  idea  of  cessation  from  labor? 

2.  In  respect  to  the  usages  which  connected  themselves  with  the 
sabbath,  consider  (i)  the  custom  of  visiting  the  man  of  God  on  the  sab- 
bath ;  (2)  the  custom  of  dividing  the  temple  guard  according  as  it  came 
in  or  went  out  on  the  sabbath;  (3)  other  early  (?)  customs,  codified 
in  later  times,  e.  g.,  remaining  inside  the  house  (Exod.  16  :  29),  kindling 
no  fire  (Exod.  35  :  3),  no  gathering  of  wood  for  the  fire  (Numb.  15  :  32- 
36),  no  baking  or  cooking  (Exod.  16:23).  (4)80  far  as  the  ^ar/y 
records  are  concerned,  are  there  any  other  ideas  than  those  of  cessa- 
tion from  labor  and  of  humanitarian  motive? 

3.  What  is  to  be  gathered  from  the  few  allusions  to  the  sabbath 
made  by  the  prophets?  (i)  What  are  the  people  desiring  to  make  of 
the  sabbath,  according  to  Amos?  What  restraint  is  evidently  upon 
them?  (2)  Does  Hosea's  statement  seem  to  place  the  sabbath  in  the 
same  category  with  days  of  rejoicing  and  mirth  ?  (3)  What  is  the 
significance  of  the  frequent  association  (as  in  Isa.  i  :  i3)of  the  sabbath 
with  the  new  moon  ? 

4.  Consider  (i)  regulations  relating  to  the  release  of  Hebrew 
servants  after  six  years  of  labor ;  did  this  imply  a  regularly  recurring 
seventh  year  in  which  all  servants  were  released  ?  Had  this  any- 
thing to  do  with  a  sabbatical  year  ?  (2)  The  regulations  prescribing 
that  the  crop  of  every  seventh  year  shall  be  given  to  the  poor  and 
the  beasts;  does  the  regulation  say  that  all  land  was  to  lie  fallow  in  the 

3  This  is  the  view  held,  for  example,  by  Ewald,  History  of  Israel,  Vol.  II,  p.  159  ; 
DiLLMANN,  J5'x^af^<^,  p.  201;  Speaker's  Commentary,  p.  336;  Driver,  Introduction, 
etc.,  p.  34;  Briggs,  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch,  pp.  181-7;  Marti,  Ge- 
schichte  der  israelitischen  Religion;    et  al. 

■•Jastrow,  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  312-52. 


no  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

same  year  ?  Was  this  the  recognition  of  a  sabbatical  year  ?  (3)  The 
motives  underlying  these  regulations. 

§  no.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  indicate 
the  most  important  factors  entering  into  the  significance  of  the  sab- 
bath, and  its  characteristics  as  it  appears  in  the  earliest  period. 

§111.  The  Sabbath  and  Kindred  Institutions  in  the  Middle  Period, 
/.  e.,  as  described  in  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  in  the  Deuteronomic 
prophecies,  and  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the  books  of  Samuel 
and  Kings.s 

1.  The  law  of  the  sabbath  in  the  Deuteronomic  decalogue. 
Deut.  5  :  12-15. 

2.  The  attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  the  sabbath. 

Jar.  17  :  19-27;  Isa.  56:  2,  4,  6;  58  :  13,  14  ;    66  :  23  ;  Lam.  1:7;  2:6. 

3.  The  law  of  the  sabbatical  year. 
Deut.  15  :  1-18 ;  31  :  10. 

4.  Release  of  slaves  in  Jeremiah. 
Jer.  34:8-17. 

§  1 12.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  now  in  detail  the  Deuteronomic  version  of  the  sabbath 
law,  including  (i)  the  word  observe,  (2)  the  reference  to  Jehovah's 
former  command  (vs.  12),  (3)  the  provision  for  the  rest  of  the  servants, 
(4)  the  reason  given  for  the  observance  of  the  sabbath,  viz.,  the  deliv- 
erance from  the  bondage  of  Egypt;  is  this  an  implication  that  the 
sabbath  was  not  observed  by  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  ?  How  is  it  to 
be  reconciled  with  the  reason  given  in  Exod.  20  :  11  ?  (5)  the  effect 
upon  the  observance  of  the  sabbath  of  the  centralization  of  worship  at 
Jerusalem  ;  would  this  not  take  away  the  ritualistic  observance  and 
emphasize  the  humanitarian  idea? 

2.  In  an  examination  of  the  prophetic  and  historical  allusions  to 
the  observance  of  the  sabbath,  consider  (i)  the  small  number  of  such 
references;  is  there  any  satisfactory  reason  ?  (2)  the  several  items  said 
by  Jeremiah  to  have  been  commanded  by  Jehovah,  viz.,  {a)  as  to  bur- 
dens, {b)  as  to  work,  {c)  as  to  hallowing  the  day;  (3)  the  attitude  of 
the  people  (Jer.  17  :23);  (4)  the  promises  and  threats  in  reference  to 
its  observance  (Jer.  17  :  24-27) ;  (5)  the  position  assigned  to  the  sabbath 
in  connection  with  the  observance  of  the  covenant  (Isa.  56:  2,  4,  6); 
(6)  the  meaning  of  the  phrases  from  doing  thy  pleasure,  and  call  the 
sabbath  a  delight  {Isa..  58:  13),  and  the  rewards  offered  ;  (7)  the  sabbath 

5  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuteron- 
omy. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH  I  I  1 

as  a  time,  like  the  new  moon,  for  worship  (Isa.  6^  :  23);  (8)  the  forget- 
ting of  the  sabbath  in  the  exile. 

3.  Consider,  in  comparison  with  the  regulations  cited  above 
(§§108,  4  ;  109,4),  the  Deuteronomic  regulations  concerning  (i)  the 
year  of  release  of  debts  :  (a)  to  whom  it  shall  and  shall  not  apply;  (d) 
does  it  mean  that  the  debt,  if  not  paid,  will  be  forgiven  or  become 
outlawed  ;  or  that  no  interest  will  be  exacted  during  this  seventh  year  ; 
or  that  no  proceedings  will  be  taken  against  the  debtor  during  that 
year?  (c)  the  reward  promised;  (d)  the  motive  for  this  law;  (e)  does 
it  imply  an  advanced  commercial  development  ?  (/)  is  the  year  a 
fixed  seventh  year  ?  (g)  would  it  encourage  or  discourage  business  ? 
(2)  the  regulations  for  the  release  of  the  Hebrew  servant,  noting  the 
slight  variations  from  the  law  given  in  Exodus;  (3)  whether  Deuteron- 
omy has  any  regulation  concerning  the  rest  of  the  land  (cf.  Exod. 
23  :  10  f.);  (4)  the  reading  of  the  law  prescribed  for  the  Feast  of  Tab- 
ernacles during  the  year  of  release  at  the  end  of  every  seven  years. 

4.  Consider  the  points  involved  in  the  story  of  the  release  of  slaves 
in  Jeremiah's  time. 

§113.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  brief  statement  showing  the 
nature  of  the  changes  which  are  being  made,  and  the  general  trend. 
§  1 1 4.  The  Sabbath  as  Described  by  Ezekiel. 

1.  The  purpose  of  the  sabbath. 
Ezek.  20  :  12,  20. 

2.  The  sabbath  a  /lo/y  day. 
Ezek.  44  :  24. 

3.  General  profanation  of  the  sabbath. 
Ezek.  20  :  13-24  ;  22  :  8,  26  ;  23  :  38. 

4.  Special  worship  and  sacrifices  for  the  sabbath. 
Ezek.  45  :  17  ;  46  :  1-5,  12. 

5.  The  year  of  liberty. 
Ezek.  46  :  17. 

§  115.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  What,  according  to  Ezekiel,  was  the  original  purpose  which  the 
sabbath  was  to  subserve  ?  Compare  the  purpose  also  of  the  statutes 
(Ezek.  20:  ti),  and  the  way  in  which  both  statutes  and  sabbaths  had 
been  treated  by  Israel. 

2.  What,  in  Ezekiel's  time,  was  meant  by  hallowing  or  keeping  holy 
the  sabbath  ? 


112  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

3.  What  was  meant  by  profaning  and  hiding  the  eyes  from  the 
sabbath  ?  Did  the  Israelites  simply  ignore  it,  or  did  they  intentionally 
do  that  which  brought  it  into  disrepute  ? 

4.  Note  the  special  character  of  the  offerings  indicated  in  Ezekiel's 
scheme  for  the  sabbath  day.  What  was  the  significance  of  this  ?  Con- 
sider how  the  sabbath  is  still  associated  with  the  new  moon. 

5.  Note  the  contents  of  the  single  reference  in  Ezekiel  to  the  year 
of  release  or  liberty. 

§  116.  Constructive  Work. — Summarize  the  position  of  Ezekiel,  and 
indicate  the  relation  of  Ezekiel's  attitude  on  this  question  to  his  gen- 
eral place  in  prophecy. 

§  117.  Sabbath  and  Kindred  Institutions  in  the  Later  Period,  i.  e.,  as 
described  in  {a)  the  laws  of  the  Levitical  Code,  {i>)  by  the  priestly 
prophets,  and  {c)  in  the  priestly  histories,  viz.,  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
Chronicles. 

1.  The  law  of  the  sabbath.^ 

Lev.  23  :  3  ;  Exod.  31  :  12-17 ;  35  :  i-3- 

2.  Special  days  observed  as  sabbaths. 

Lev.  23  :  7  f.,  24-32,  39  ;  16  :  29-31  ;     Numb,  28  :  11-15,  18,  25  f . ;  29 :  i,  7, 
12,  35- 

3.  Reasons  assigned  for  the  observance  of  the  sabbath. 
Gen.  2  :  2  f.  ;  Exod.  20  :  1 1 ;  31  :  12  f.,  17. 

4.  Special  offerings  made  on  the  sabbath. 

Lev.  23  :38;  Numb.  28:9!;  i  Chron.  23  :  3i;2Chron.  2:4:8:13;  31:3; 
Neb.  10 :  33. 

5.  Emphasis  laid  on  observance  of  the  sabbath. 

Lev.   19: 3(5,  30a;  26  :2a /Exod.  16:22-30;  31:14-16;  35:2;  Numb. 
15  :  32-36  ;  Neh.  10:31;  13:15-22. 

6.  Use  of  the  sabbath  as  a  fixed  point  of  time. 

Lev.  23  :  15  f.;  24  :  8  ;   i  Chron.  g  ;  32  ;  2  Chron.  23  :  4,  8. 

7.  Sabbath  made  known  on  Sinai. 
Neh,  9:14. 

8.  Law  of  the  sabbatical  year. 
Lev.  25  : 1-7  ;  26  :  34,  35. 

9.  Exile  conceived  of  as  a  sabbath  for  the  land. 
Lev.  26  :  34  f . ;  2  Chron.  36:21. 

10.   Law  of  year  of  jubilee. 

Lev.,  chap.  25  ;  27  :  17-24  ;  Numb.  36  : 4. 

*  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Levitical  Code. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    THE    SABBATH  II3 

§  118.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Consider  (i)  the  form  of  the  sabbath  observance  which  must 
have  existed  during  the  exile,  viz.,  the  humanitarian  and  not  the  ritu- 
alistic;  the  adaptation  of  this  to  the  possibilities  of  worship  in  this 
period,  and  the  distinctive  character  which  it  must  have  given  the 
Jewish  community.  (2)  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  new  phrases  sol- 
emn rest,  holy  convocation,  sabbath  unto  Jehovah?  (3)  What  is  the 
purpose  of  the  sabbath  {cf.  Ezekiel)  ?  the  penalty  for  its  non-obser- 
vance ?  the  connection  between  sign  and  perpetual  covenant  ?  (4)  The 
reason  assigned  for  its  establishment  {cf.  Exod.  20:  11)?  (5)  Why 
should  the  kindling  of  fire  have  been  prohibited  in  particular  ? 

2.  Note  how  the  idea  of  rest  now  attaches  itself  to  other  days,  viz., 
first  day  of  the  Passover,  first  day  of  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  first  and 
eighth  days  of  the  Feast  of  Booths,  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

3.  Consider  the  reasons  assigned  for  the  sabbath's  observance:  (i) 
because  God  rested  on  the  seventh  day;  was  there  any  connection 
between  this  reason  and  the  fact  that  the  teaching  concerning  God  as 
Creator  is  greatly  emphasized  in  the  exilic  and  post-exilic  periods? 
(2)  because  it  is  to  serve  as  a  sign  between  God  and  Israel ;  did  this 
mean  that  it  distinguished  Israel  from  other  nations  which  did  not 
•observe  it  ? 

4.  Note  the  details  and  significance  of  the  special  offering  made  on 
the  sabbath. 

5.  Consider  the  rigidity  with  which  the  sabbath  law  was  now  to  be 
enforced  :  (i)  on  the  same  plane  with  the  honoring  of  father  and  mother, 
and  the  reverencing  of  a  sanctuary;  (2)  penalty  of  death  imposed 
for  non-observance  ;  (3)  the  story  of  the  man  who  gathered  sticks  on 
the  sabbath  day  and  suffered  death  by  stoning ;  (4)  the  gathering  of  a 
double  amount  of  manna  on  the  sixth  day  and  the  absence  of  manna 
on  the  sabbath  ;  (5)  the  agreement  to  refrain  from  commercial  deal- 
ings on  the  sabbath  ;  (6)  Nehemiah's  judicial  procedure  in  the  case  of 
those  violating  the  law. 

6.  Note  how  the  sabbath,  having  become  a  fixed  date,  every  seventh 
day,  is  used  as  a  point  from  which  to  calculate  other  feasts. 

7.  Note  the  tradition  preserved  by  Nehemiah  that  the  sabbath  was 
(first  ?)  made  known  on  Sinai. 

8.  Study  the  details  of  the  law  of  the  sabbatical  year:  (i)  Is  all 
agriculture  to  be  remitted  ?  (2)  What  is  to  be  the  disposition  of  the 
fruit  and  grain  that  grows  of  itself?  (3)  Was  Palestine  a  land  subject 
to  severe   famines?     If   so,  could   such   a   law  have   been  observed? 


114  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(4)  Could  it  have  been  observed  while  the  people  were  mainly  agri- 
culturists, /.  e.,  before  trade  and  commerce  had  come  in  ?  How  would 
the  people  living  in  rural  districts  spend  their  time  ?  (5)  Is  there  any 
evidence  that  it  was  observed  before  the  exile  ?  or  that  it  was  not  {cf. 
Lev.  26:34,  35)?  (6)  Did  not  its  observance  in  later  times  cause 
great  distress  (i  Mace.  6:49,  53)?  (7)  What  connection  was  there 
between  this  sabbatical  year,  with  its  fixed  time  of  recurrence,  and  the 
year  of  release  for  slaves  and  debt  in  Deuteronomy  (§§  11 1,  3;   112,  3)? 

9.  Consider  the  idea  suggested  that  the  entire  period  of  exile  is  a 
period  of  sabbaths,  now  enforced  because  formerly  unobserved. 

10.  Concerning  the  Year  of  Jubilee,  consider  (i)  the  meaning  of  the 
name  ;  (2)  the  time  fixed  ;  was  it  the  fiftieth  year  following  the  seventh 
sabbatical  year,  that  is,  was  it  the  second  of  two  successive  years  of 
rest?  or  did  it  coincide  with  the  forty-ninth  year?  (3)  the  procedure; 
was  it,  in  general,  like  the  sabbatical  year  ?  (4)  what  was  the  regulation 
concerning  sowing,  reaping,  gathering  ?  (5)  concerning  the  restoration 
of  real  property  ?  (6)  the  special  provision  concerning  dwelling-houses 
in  walled  cities  ;  the  houses  of  the  Levites  ;  (7)  the  regulation  concern- 
ing Hebrew  and  non-Hebrew  slaves  ;  (8)  concerning  land  dedicated  to 
Jehovah  and  its  redemption ;  (9)  concerning  the  inheritance  of  daugh- 
ters as  affected  by  these  laws.  (10)  How  were  the  people  to  live  dur- 
ing this  period  of  abstinence  from  work?  (11)  Is  it  possible  that  the 
law  of  the  jubilee  year  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  law  of  the  sabbath  ?  (12) 
What  led  to  the  choice  of  the  fiftieth  year?  (13)  Is  there  any  evidence 
that  this  law  existed  before  the  time  of  the  exile  ?  (14)  Was  the  Year 
of  Jubilee  ever  observed  ?  (15)  Was  it  a  practical  law,  or  an  ideal  law? 
(16)  What,  in  general,  is  meant  by  ideal  legislation  ? 

§  119.  Constructive  "Work. 

Prepare  a  statement  including  {a)  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
such  an  exceedingly  large  place  is  occupied  by  the  sabbatical  system 
in  the  legislation  and  thought  of  this  period;  (<5)  an  enumeration  of 
the  various  points  of  difference  between  the  laws  and  usages  of  this 
period  and  those  of  the  Deuteronomic  period  ;  and  (c)  a  brief  study  of 
the  development  of  the  sabbatical  idea  in  the  course  of  Israel's  history. 

§  120.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

Jennings, yifWiVi  Antiquities  (1808),  pp.  320  f.;  Ewald,  History  of  Israel  {i%\.  ed. 
1843-59,  transl.  1883),  Vol.  I,  pp.  88  {.;  II,  pp.  209  f.;  V,  pp.  166  f.,  343,  400,  416; 
IvEM,  Antiquities  0/ Israel {lSS4,  transl.  1876),  pp.  97-107;  Kalisch,  Commentary  on 
Exodus  (1855),  in  loc.  20:8-11;  Hessey,  On  the  Sabbath  ("Bampton  Lecture," 
i860,  3d  ed.  1866);  GiLFlLLAN,  On  the  Sabbath  (1862);  KuRTZ,  Sacrificial  Worship 
of  the  Old  Testament  (1862,  transl.  1863),  pp.  342  ff.;  Johnstone,  Sunday   and  the 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  SABBATH        II5 

Sabbath  (1863);  R.  S.  PoOLE,  article  "Chronology,"  see  section  on  "Sabbatical  and 
Jubilee  Years,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  Cox, 
Literature  of  the  Sabbath  Question  (1865);  ScHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed. 
1869,  transl.  1892),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sabbath,"  "Sabbatical  Year,"  "Jubilee;" 
KUENEN,  The  Religion  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl.  1894),  Vol.  I,  pp.  286  f.;  II,  pp. 
278-84  ;  Sayce,  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  I  (1873),  pp.  164  f.;  Oehler,  Theology  of 
the  Old  Testament  (ist  ed.  1873,  3d  ed.  1891,  transl.  1883),  pp.  328-45  ;  Sayce, 
Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  VII  (1876),  p.  157;  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the 
History  of  Israel  {1878),  pp.  112-20;  J.  Y^^TO^,  Early  Hebrew  Life  (1880),  pp.  24-6, 
29-32,  64-70;  W.  D.  Love,  "The  Sabbath,  etc.,"  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1880,  pp.  153-78, 
355-89,419-39,  661-S5;  1S81,  pp.  254-85,524-52,  Schrader,  Cuneiform  Inscrip- 
tions and  the  Old  Testament  {2d  ed.  1882,  transl.  1885),  Vol.  I,  pp.  18  ff.;  W.  R. 
Sunn,  Prophets  of  Israel  {ist  ed.  1882,  2d  ed.  1895),  pp.  385  f.;  Francis  Brown, 
"The  Sabbath  in  the  Cuneiform  'R&cotAs,"  Presbyterian  Review,  1882,  pp.  688-700; 
Dillmann,  Commentary  on  Genesis  (5th  ed.  1886,  transl.  1897  f.),  in  loc.  chap,  i; 
SCHURER,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Tifue  of  Jesus  Christ{i8?>t,  transl.  1891), 
Div.  II,Vol.  II,  PP..96-105  ;  W.  R.  Smith,  articles  "Jubilee,"  "Sabbath,"  Encyclopcedia 
Britannica  (1887);  Sayce,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Babylonians  {"  Hibbert  Lectures," 
1887),  pp.  70-77;  Doughty,  Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta  (1888),  Vol.  I,  pp.  151,  366; 
II,  pp.  225.  306  ;  McClintock  and  Strong,  Cyclopedia  of  Biblical,  Theological  and 
Ecclesiastical  Literature  (1891),  articles  "Jubilee,"  "Sabbath,"  and  "Sabbatical 
Year ; "  Jensen,  "  The  Supposed  Babylonian  Origin  of  the  Week  and  the  Sabbath," 
Sunday  School  Zi'wfj-,  January  16,  1892;  Alice  M.  Earle,  The  Sabbath  in  Puritan 
New  England  {"jih.  ed.  1893);  F.  Garden,  article  "Sabbatical  Year,"  Smith's  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893);  S.  Clark  (revised  by  J.  M.  Fuller),  article 
"Jubilee,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893);  W.  E.  Addis,  Docu7nents  of 
the  Hextateuch,  2  vols.  (1893-98),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Jubilee,"  "  Sabbath,"  etc.;  Sayce, 
Higher  Criticism  and  the  Verdict  of  the  Monuments  (1S93),  pp.  74-7;  Montefiore, 
The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  ("Hibbert  Lectures,"  1893),  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Sabbath;"  Davis,  Genesis  and  Sejuitic'  Tradition  (1894),  pp.  23-35;  Driver,  A 
Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy  (1895),  pp.  174-81 ;  Hirschfeld, 
"  Remarks  on  the  Etymology  of  Sa.hhd.t.h.,'"  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1896,  pp. 
354  f.;  Abrahams, /^wm/z  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages  {lig"]),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Sabbath  ;  " 
Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  "The  Original  Character  of  the  Hebrew  Sabbath,"  American 
Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II  (1898),  pp.  312-52  ;  Cheyne,/(?ww//  Religious  Life  after 
the  Exile  (1898),  pp.  66  f.;  S.  R.  Driver  and  H.  A.  White,  The  Book  of  Leviticus  — 
a  New  English  Translation  (Polychrome  Bible,  1898),  pp.  97-100;  E.  A.  W.  Budge, 
Egyptian  Magic  (1899),  pp.  224-8;  Sayce,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life  and 
Customs  (1899),  p.  245  ;  Kent,  A  History  of  the  Jewish  People  During  the  Babylonian, 
Persian,  and  Greek  Periods  (1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sabbath;"  Sinker,  Essays  and 
Studies  (1900);  J.  Estlin-Carpenter  and  G.  Harford  Battersby,  The  Hexa- 
teuch  (1900),  Vol.  II,  p.  112  ;  T.  F.  WRIGHT,  "Sabbath,"  New  Church  Review,  Janu- 
ary, 1900;  W.  R.  Smith  and  I.  Benzinger,  article  "Jubilee,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica 
(1901);  McCurdy,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments,  Vol.  Ill  (1901),  pp.  376  f.; 
Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  "  Hebrew  and  Babylonian  Accounts  of  Creation,"  Jewish 
Quarterly  Review,  Yo\.  XIII  (1901),  pp.  648-50;  H.  R.  Gamble,  Sunday  and  the 
Sabbath  (Golden  Lectures  for  1900-1901);  C.  F.  Kk^t,  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XVIII 
(1901),  pp.  344-8. 


Il6  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

J.  Spencer,/?^  le gibus Hebraeorum  ritualibus  (2d  ed.  1686);  Wagenseil,  De  anno 
^ubilaeo  Hebraeorum  (1700);  J.  H.  Mai,  Maimonidis  tract,  de  juribus  anni  septimi  et 
ntbilaei  {170S);  Van  der  Kardt,  Dt-j'ubi/aeo  Mosis  {1^28);  Reineccws,  De  origine 
^ubilaeorum  (1730);  Carpzov,  De  anno  jubilaeo  (1730);  Hebenstreit,  De  sabbato 
ante  leges  Mosis  existente  (1748);  Meyer,  De  temporibus  et  diebus  Hebraeoruni  (1755), 
pp.  341-60;  Michaelis,  Comm.  in  leg.  Mosis  (1775-80),  Vol.  I,  pp.  76-419;  Franke, 
Novum  systema  chro7iologiae  fu7idamentalis  (1778);  11 UG,  "  Ueber  das  mosaische 
Gesetz  vom  Jubeljahr,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  das  Erzbisthum,  I,  I;  De  Wette,  Lehrbuch  der 
hebrdisch-jiidischen  Archdologie  (ist  ed.  1814,  4th  ed.  1864),  pp.  21 1  f.;  Baur,  "  Uer 
hebraische  Sabbath  und  die  Nationalfeste  des  Mosaischen  Kultus,"  Tiibinger  Zeit- 
schrift, 1S32,  pp.  125  f.;  Vatke,  Die  Religion  des  Alien  Testanientes  (1835),  Vol.  I, 
pp.  198  f.;  Kranold,  De  anno  Hebraeorum  jubilaeo  (1835);  G.  WOLDE,  De- anno 
Hebraeorum  jubilaeo  (1837);  Bahr,  Symbolik  des  ?nosaischen  Cultus  (1839),  Vol.  I,  pp. 
572  f.;  II,  pp.  569  f.,  601  f.;  Winer's  Biblisches  Realwdrterbuch  (3d  ed.  1847),  articles 
"Sabbath,"  etc.;  Ewald,  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgetildndischen  Gesellschaft, 
Vol.  I  (1847),  pp.  410  ff.;  BrugsCH,  ibid.,^o\.\\\  (1849),  pp.  271  ff.;  Proudhon, 
De  la  celebratiofi  du  Dinianche  ( 1850);  OsCHWALD,  Die  christliche  Sonntagsfeier  ( 1850); 
Liebetrut,  Die  Sonntagsfeier  das  Wochenfest  des  Volkes  Gottes  (1851);  Herzfeld, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  II  (1855),  pp.  458-65  ;  Saai.SChOtz,  Archdologie  der 
Hebrder,  Vol.  II  (1856),  pp.  224  ff.,  308  ff.;  Zuckermann,  Sabbathjahrcyclus  und 
fubelperiode  (1857);  HuPFELD,  Commentatio  de  Hebraeorum  festis.  Part  III  (1858); 
Keil,  Handbuch  der  biblischen  Archdologie  (ist  ed.  1858  f.,  2d  ed.  1875),  Vol.  I,  §§77 
ff.;  Dozy,  Die  Israeliten  zu  Mekka  (transl.  from  Dutch  1864),  pp.  34  f.;  Kukel, 
"  Die  sociale  und  volkswirtschaftliche  Gesetzgebung  des  Alten  Testamentes,"  Theo- 
logische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1871,  pp.  760  ff.;  Steiner,  article  "Jubeljahr"  in 
Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  Ill  (1871);  Schrader,  "Der  babylonische  Ursprung 
der  siebentagigen  Woche,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1874,  pp.  343  ff.. 
Mangold,  articles  "Sabbat"  and  "Sabbatsjahr"  in  Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexikon, 
Vol.  V  (1875);  KOHLER,  Lehrbuch  der  biblischen  Geschichte,  Vol.1  (1875),  pp.  431  ff.; 
Klostermann,  "Uber  die  kalendarische  Bedeutung  des  Jobeljahres,"  Theologische 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  1880,  pp.  720-48;  Dillmann,  Die  Biicher  Exodus  und 
Leviticus  (2d  ed.  1880),  pp.  602  ff.;  Budde,  Die  hiblische  Urgeschichte  (1883),  pp.  495 
ff.;  \.OTZ,  Quaestiones  de  historia  sabbathi  {l?>'ij,)\  Hoffmann,  "  Versuche  zu  Amos," 
Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  Ill  (1883),  pp.  120  f.;  Oehler, 
articles  "Sabbath"  and  "Sabbath- und  Jobeljahr,"  revised  by  von  Orelli,  in  A'^a/- 
encyklopddie  fiir  protesta7itische  Theologie  und  Kirche  {zd  ed.  1884);  RiEHM,  articles 
"Jobeljahr,"  "Sabbath,"  "Sabbathjahr "  in  KlEHU's  Handwbrterbuch  des  biblischen 
Alterthums  (ist  ed.  1884,  2d  ed.  1893  f.);  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I 
(1887),  pp.  498  f.;  Wellhausem,  Composition  des  Hexateuchs  (2d  ed.  1889),  pp.  187  f.; 
]KKSKT:i,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyriologie,\o\.  IV  (1889),  pp.  274  ff.;  H.  L.  Strack,  Z><fr 
Mischnatraktat  ''Sabbath  ''  herausgegeben  und  erkldrt  {\Zqo);  Baentsch,  Das  Bundes- 
buch—Ex.  XX.  22— XXIII.  33  (1892),  pp.  115  f.;  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestament- 
lichen  Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sabbath" 
and  "Jubeljahr;"  Nowack,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894),  Vol.  I, 
pp.  217,  333;  II,  pp.  138-44,  159-72;  Benzinger,  Hebrdisc he  Archdologie  {liq^),Y>p. 
201  f.,  464  ff.,  473  f.;  GUNKEL,  Schopfung  und  Chaos  (1895),  pp.  13!.,  II4-17  ;  DiLL- 
mann,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Jobeljahr" 
and  "Sabbat;"  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  THE  SABBATH        II7 

"Sabbat"  and  "Jobeljahr; "  Holzinger,  Exodus  {Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zutn 
Alien  Testament'),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Sabbath"  (1900);  Bertholet,  Leviticus  {Kurzer 
Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten  Testament),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Jobeljahr,"  "Sabbat," 
(1901). 

See  also  the  Mishnah  tracts  on  "The  Sabbath"  and  "The  Book  of  Jubilees," 
chap.  50. 

§  12  1.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Study  the  meaning  of  the  word  "sabbath,"  its  derivation,  its 
usage. 

2.  Examine  the  following  texts  in  which  the  root  DniD  occurs,  with 
a  view  to  determining  the  meaning  of  the  root,  viz.:  Gen.  2  :  2  f.;  8:22; 
Exod.  16  :  30;   12  :  15  ;  23  :  12;  34  :  21  ;  Josh.  5:12;  Isa.  13:  11;  14  :  5  ; 

30  :  7  ;  Ps.  8  :  3  ;  Prov.  20  :  3. 

3.  Study  the  passages  in  which  the  word  ■pn^lT  (ordinarily  trans- 
lated "solemn  rest")  occurs,  viz.:  Lev.  23:3,  24,  32,  39;  16:31; 
25  :  4;  Exod.  16  :  23  ;  35  :  2  ;  31  :  15,  with  a  view  to  determining  its 
meaning. 

4.  Examine  the  words  b^^  ("jubilee"),  llm  ("liberty"). 

5.  From  an  examination  of  i  Mace.  1:39,  43,  45;  2:32-41; 
6  :49  ;  9  :  43  ff.;  10  :  34;  2  Mace.  5  :  24-26;  6  :  6,  1 1 ;  12  :  38  ;  15:1-5, 
prepare  a  statement  concerning  the  sabbath  in  Maccabean  times. 

6.  Is  the  sabbath  referred  to  in  the  Wisdom  books,  or  in  the 
Psalms  {cf.  the  title  of  Ps.  92)?     Why  not? 

7.  From  a  study  of  the  following  references  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment discuss  the  attitude  of  Jesus  and  the  several  New  Testament 
writers  toward  the  sabbath  :  Matt.  12  :  i  f.,  5,  8,  10  ff.;  24:20;  28:1; 
Mark  1:21;   2  :  23  f.,  27  f.;   3  :  2,  4  ;  6:2;   15  :  42  ;   16:1;   Luke  4  :  16, 

31  ;  6  :  I  ff.,  5  ff.,  9  ;  13  :  10,  14  ff.;  14  :  i,  3,  5  ;  23  :  54,  56  ;  John  5  :  9  f., 
16,  18  ;  7  :  22  f.;  g  :  14,  16  ;  19:31;  Acts  1:12;  13  :  14,  27,  42,  44; 
15:21;    18:4;   21:27;   28  :  14  ;   Col.    2:16;   Heb.  4:4;   Rev.  i  :  10. 

8.  Compare,  in  general,  the  observance  of  special  rest-days  among 
the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  determine  whether  there  is 
any  possible  connection  between  these  days  and  the  sabbath.' 

9.  Compare,  in  general,  the  observance,  on  the  part  of  the  Assyrians, 

">  Cf.  Maspero,  Romans  et  Poesies  au  Papyrus  Harris,  No.  ^00,  pp.  38  f.  41; 
Chabas,  Le  calendrier  des  jours  fastes  et  nefastes  de  Pannee  egyptienne;  WIEDEMANN, 
Religion  of  the  Egyptians,  pp.  263  f . ;  Jastrow,  "  Original  Character  of  the  Hebrew 
Sabbath,"  American  Journal  of  Theology,  NoX.  II,  p.  350,  note  116;  Budge,  Egyptian 
Magic,  pp.  224-8;  Ihering,  Vorgeschichte  der  Indo-Europder,  pp.  145,  309-58  ff. 
(in  English  translation  =  7%,?  Evolution  of  the  Aryan,  New  York,  1897);  H.  Cohen, 
"Der  Sabbath  in  seiner  culturgeschichtlichen  Bedeutung,"  Zf?V^^'?5/( Milwaukee,  Wis.), 
1881,  pp.  4ff.;  Dozy,  Die  Israeliten  zu  Mekka,  pp.  34  f.;  KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel, 


Il8  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Arabs,  and  Canaanites,  of  special  rest-days,  and  determine  whether 
there  is  any  connection  between  these  days  and  the  sabbath.^ 

10.  Consider,  in  general,  the  whole  sabbatical  system,  and  show 
(a)  its  origin,  {^)  its  various  stages  of  development,  {c)  its  social  bear- 
ings, (d)  its  religious  significance,  (e)  its  idealism,  (/)  its  practical 
character. 

11.  Consider  the  relation  of  the  sabbath  to  the  moon,  the  new- 
moon   feast,  etc.     Was  the   sabbath   originally  a  lunar  festival  ?     Cf. 

§§97  (9),  104  (4)- 

12.  Consider  the  origin  and  significance  of  the  use  of  the  number 
seven  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  seen,  e.  g.,  in  the  sabbatical  system,  in 
the  proceedings  connected  with  the  capture  of  Jericho,  in  the  Hebrew 
verb  "to  swear,  take  oath"  (literally  =  " to  seven  oneself"  or  "be  sev- 
ened"),  in  the  seven  kine  of  Pharaoh's  dream,  etc. 

13.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  Old  Testament  sabbath  to  the 
"Lord's  day"  of  the  New  Testament,  (a)  as  to  the  day  observed,  (d)  as 
to  the  spirit  characteristic  of  the  observance  -* 

Vol.  I,  pp.  262  f.;  Lepsius,  Chronologie  der  Aegypter,  Vol.  I,  pp.  22,  132  £f. ; 
Brugsch,  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenldndischen  Geselhchaft,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  271 ; 
NOWACK,  Hebrdische  Archdologie,  Vol.  II,  pp.  141!. 

^  Cf.  Morris  Jastrow,  "Original  Character  of  the  Hebrew  Sabbath,"  American 
Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  312-52;  Sayce,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life 
and  Customs,  p.  245  ;  SCHRADER,  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1874,  pp.  343-53; 
Francis  Brown,  "  The  Sabbath  in  the  Cuneiform  Records,"  Presbyterian  Review, 
1882,  pp.  688-700.    (See  also  §  120.) 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE   LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING   CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN,  CONSIDERED 
COMPARATIVELY. 

§  122.  The  Clean  and  Unclean  in  the  Early  Period,  /.  <?.,  as  described 
in  (a)  the  Covenant  Code  ;  (^)  the  historical  material  of  J  and  E  ;  (c) 
the  pre-Deuteronomic  portions  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings ;  and 
(d)  the  pre-Deuteronomic  prophetic  utterances  (see  §  59,  note  i).' 

1.  Traces  of  totemism. 

Gen.  43  :  32  ;  46  :  34  ;  Exod.  8  :  26. 

2.  Distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  is  ancient. 
Gen,  7:2,8;  8  :  20. 

3.  Sources  of  uncleanness. 

Gen,  35  :2  ;  2  Sam.  11:4;   2  Kings  5  :  10-14  ;  Isa.  30:  22. 

4.  Non-Israelitish  lands  are  unclean. 
Amos  7:17;  Hos.  9  :  3. 

5.  Forbidden  food. 

Exod.  23  :  igiJ,-  34: 26(5,-  22:31.^ 

6.  Cleanness  is  necessary  to  participation  in  religious  exercises. 
Gen.  35  :  2  ;  Exod.  3:5;  19:10;   i  Sam.  20:26  ;  Judg.  13:4,  7,  14  ; 
Isa,  6 :  5  ;  2  Kings  10:  22  ;  2  Sam.  6  :  14. 

7.  Attitude  of  prophets  toward  clean  and  unclean. 
Amos  7:17;  Hos.  9:3;  Isa.  1:16;  6:5;  30 :  22, 

§  123.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

I.  Consider  (i)  the  meaning  of  "  every  shepherd  is  an  abomination 
unto  the  Egyptians,"  and  what  is  involved  in  the  statement ;  (2)  the 
meaning  of  "sacrifice  the  abomination  of  the  Egyptians;"  (3)  whether 
that  which  is  called  an  "abomination"  may  have  been  something  sacred 
or  holy,  /,  e.,  something  worshiped,  for  example,  an  animal ;  (4)  whether, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  existed  in  Israel  cases  of  special  association 
between  certain  kinds  of  animals  and  certain  tribes  or  certain  towns  ;^ 

'  The  following  references  are  from  J :  Gen.  7  :  2,  8  ;  8  :  20 ;  43  :  32  ;  46  :  34  ;  Exod, 
8  :  26  ;  34  :  26(5.     The  following  are  from  E  :    Gen.  35  :  2  ;  Exod.  22  :  ^id;  23  :  iQiJ, 

'  These  references  are  from  the  Covenant  Code, 

3  C/.  Nun  (Fish),  Exod.  33  :  "  ;  Terah  (Ibex),  Gen,  11  :  27  ;  Leah  (Wild  Cow), 
Gen,  29  :  16  ;  and  see  R.  G.  MURISON,  "Totemism  in  the  Old  Testament,"  Biblicat 
World,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  170  ff. 


120  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(5)  whether  there  are  not  cases  in  which  animals  are  regarded  as 
having  superhuman  power;'*  (6)  whether  the  second  commandment 
does  not  imply  that  the  Israelites  were  addicted  to  animal-worship  ] 
(7)  whether  actual  historical  proof  of  this  is  not  found  in  the  story  of 
the  worship  of  the  calf  (Exod.  32  :  7-24)  and  of  the  brazen  serpent 
(Numb.  21  :  8  f.;  2  Kings  18:4);  (8)  the  meaning  and  significance  of 

2.  Note  (i)  the  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  animals  made 
in  the  narrative  of  the  deluge,  and  consider  (2)  whether  the  words 
unclean  and  sacred  may  not  be  used  synonymously;  that  is,  was  not 
the  unclean  thing  (whether  animal  or  person  or  object)  something  in 
connection  with  which  "  a  superhuman  agency  of  a  dangerous  kind  " 
was  supposed  to  be  acting,  and  which,  therefore,  was,  from  one  point 
of  view,  sacred,  from  another,  unclean  ?  (3)  whether  this  is  not  to  be 
closely  associated  with  the  usage  existing  among  many  nations  and 
called  taboo!' 

3.  Consider  the  source  of  uncleanness  in  the  case  of  (i)  Jacob's 
household,  (2)  Bathsheba,  (3)  Naaman  the  Syrian,  (4)  the  graven 
images  (Isa.  30  :  22)  ;  and  formulate  a  statement  which  will  {a)  classify 
these  sources  and  {J?)  explain  the  idea  of  uncleanness  in  each  case. 

4.  Consider  the  idea  that  for  an  Israelite  any  other  land  than  his 
own  was  unclean,  and  explain  the  basis  on  which  this  idea  rests. 

5.  Note  the  prohibition  of  eating  (i)  a  kid  boiled  in  its  mother's 
milk,'  (2)  the  flesh  torn  of  beasts ;  and  explain  the  significance  of  the 
usage  in  each  case.  Are  there  in  the  Covenant  Code  other  prohibi- 
tions concerning  the  eating  of  food  ? 

6.  Explain  (i)the  "washing  of  garments"  in  Exod.  19  :  10  ;  (2)  the 
reason  assigned  by  Saul  for  Jonathan's  absence  (i  Sam.  20:26);  (3) 
the  connection  of  "eating  no  unclean  thing"  with  the  Nazirite  (Judg. 
13:4);  (4)  Isaiah's  confession  of  unclean  lips  (Isa.  6:5);  (5)  the 
putting  off  of  shoes  (Exod.  3  :  5);  (6)  the  use  of  the  vestments  (2 
Kings  10 :  22);  (7)  the  use  of  the  linen  ephod  (2  Sam.  6  :  14). 

7.  How  far  were  the  current  ideas  concerning  clean  and  unclean 

-»  Cf.  Gen.  3  :  i  ff.;   Numb.  21:8  f.;   Ezek.  8  :  10  f. 

sSee  especially  J.  G.  Frazer,  Totemism;  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites 
(2d  ed.),  pp.  125  ff. ;    and  other  literature  cited  in  §  134. 

*  See  especially  J.  G.  Frazer,  article  "  Taboo,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica  ;  W.  R. 
Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (2d  ed.),  pp.  152  £f.,  446  ff. 

7 See  Kalisch,  Commentary  on  Exod.  23:I9/^and  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of 
the  Semites  (2d  ed.),-  p.  221. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         121 

accepted  by  the  prophets?  Consider,  for  example,  (i)  the  view  held 
concerning  foreign  lands  ;  (2)  the  exhortation  to  wash  and  become 
clean  (Isa.  1:6);  (3)  Isaiah's  feeling  concerning  himself  (6  :  5);  (4) 
the  treatment  of  graven  images  (Isa.  30  :  22). 

§124.  Constructive  Work. —  From  the  material  furnished  prepare  a 
general  statement  upon  the  idea  of  the  clean  and  unclean  in  the 
earliest  period. 

§125.  The  Usages  and  Laws  Concerning  Clean  and  Unclean  in  the 
Middle  Perioi,  /.  <?.,  as  described  in  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  in  the 
Deuteronomic  prophecies,  and  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings.^ 

1.  Traces  of  totemism. 

Deut.  32:17;    2  Kings  22:12;    Jar.  36:10;    cf.  2    Kings    18:4    and 
Ezek,  8  :  7-12. 

2.  Forbidden  food. 

Deut.  12  :  16,  23  ff.;  14  :  3-21  ;   15  :  23. 

3.  Sources  of  uncleanness. 

Deut.  21  :  22  f.;  23: 10  f.;  23  :  12-14  ;  7  :  25  f.;  Jar.  16:18;  Lam.  4  :  14  f. 

4.  Cleanness  necessary  to  participation  in  religious  exercises. 
Deut.  12  :  15  ;   15  :  21  f.;  26  :  13  f.;   Isa.  52  :  i,  11. 

5.  Prophetic  attitude  toward  clean  and  unclean. 

Jar.  2  :7,  23  ;   13  :  27  ;    16:18;  33  :  8  ;  Lam.  4  :  14  f.;  Isa.  52  :  i,  11. 
§  126.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

1.  Note  that  individuals  and  heads  of  clans  still  bear  the  names  of 
animals,  e.  g.,  Shaphan  (=Rock  Badger),  Achbor  (=  Mouse).  What  is 
the  significance  of  this  in  view  of  the  fact  that  as  recently  as  the  days 
of  Hezekiah  the  image  of  a  serpent  was  still  being  worshiped,  and 
that  Ezekiel  testifies  to  the  existence  of  similar  worship  just  prior  to 
the  exile  ? 

2.  Consider  (i)  the  regulation  concerning  the  eating  of  blood,  and 
the  ground  on  which  it  rests;  (2)  whether  in  this  case  the  principle  of 
taboo  is  not  clearly  found  ;  (3)  the  general  command  concerning  eat- 
ing anything  "abominable:"  (4)  the  animals  which  might  be  eaten, 
and  their  general  characteristics;  (5)  the  animals  which  might  not  be 
eaten,  and  their  general  characteristics  ;  (6)  the  general  principles 
which  seem  to  underlie  the  selection;  (7)  the  character  of  a  selection 
arising  in  this  way  ;  (8)  the  fact  that  the  number  of  clean  quadrupeds 
is  ten;  (9)  whether  this  distinction  was  something  objective   imposed 

*  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuter- 
onomy. 


122  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

upon  the  people  for  a  purpose  (if  so,  was  this  purpose  (a)  to  train  the 
people  in  obedience,  or  (d)  to  provide  hygienic  dietary  laws,  or  (<r)  to 
teach  important  religious  truth  by  an  allegorical  method,  or  (cl)  to 
separate  the  Israelites  from  other  nations,  or  (e)  to  prevent  the  wor- 
ship of  certain  animals  ?);  or,  rather,  something  subjective,  of  gradual 
growth,  and  expressive  of  certain  instinctive  feelings  (for  example,  (a) 
that  of  aversion,  or  (^)  appreciation  of  utility  or  beauty,  or  (<r)  expe- 
rience of  the  use  of  this  or  that  kind  of  flesh) ;  or  whether  the  origin 
is  to  be  connected  with  some  form  or  other  of  totemism  ;  (lo)  the 
absence  of  any  list  of  clean  and  unclean  animals  in  the  Covenant  Code, 
and  the  significance  of  so  fully  developed  a  list  in  the  Deuteronomic 
Code. 

3.  Consider  (i)  some  of  the  sources  of  uncleanness  as  cited,  e.g., 
the  body  of  a  man  who  has  been  hanged;  issues  of  the  body  ;  graven 
images;  "carcasses  of  detestable  things;"  contagion;  and  (2)  the 
method  suggested  for  purification. 

4.  Note  the  necessity  of  cleanness  on  the  part  of  one  who  is  to 
engage  in  a  religious  exercise,  and  in  this  connection  (1)  the  fact  that 
the  flesh  of  certain  animals  may  be  eaten  alike  by  those  who  are  clean 
and  by  those  who  are  unclean ;  (2)  the  prohibition  of  the  lame,  the 
blind,  or  the  blemished  in  sacrifice;  (3)  the  synonymous  use  of  the 
words  "uncircumcised  "  and  "unclean."' 

5.  Study  the  prophetic  attitude  toward  infringement  of  the  regu- 
lations concerning  "clean  and  unclean,"  and  the  punishment  which 
is  to  follow  this  infringement.  How  far  do  the  prophets  of  this  period 
seem  to  have  shared  the  ideas  of  their  times  on  this  subject  ?  Does 
their  attitude  relate  to  the  minute  particulars  of  the  system,  or  to  the 
general  question  of  loyalty  or  obedience  ? 

§  127.  Constructive  Work.  —  Compare,  in  general,  the  minuteness 
of  the  regulations  of  this  period  in  contrast  with  those  of  the  earlier 
period  ;  characterize  these  regulations  as  a  whole  ;  and  consider  whether 
they  are  (i)  really  new  usages  which  had  their  origin  after  the  formu- 
lation of  the  book  of  the  covenant,  or  (2)  old  usages,  for  the  most 
part,  which  are  now  codified  for  the  first  time  ;  (3)  in  the  former  case, 
whence  may  they  be  supposed  to  have  come  ?  (4)  in  the  latter  case, 
to  what  influence  are  we  to  ascribe  their  codification  ? 

§  128.  The  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  Clean  and  Unclean  in  Ezekiel. 

I.    Traces  of  totemism. 
Ezek.  8:7-12. 

'For  a  further  study  of  the  subject  of  circumcision  see  §§  164  f. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         1 23 

2.  Forbidden  foods. 
Ezek.  4:14. 

3.  Sources  of  uncleanness. 

Ezek.  4:14;    22:24;    36:17,25,29,33;    37:23;    39:  r2,  14,  16,  24; 
43:7-9;  44:25. 

4.  Instruction  concerning  clean  and  unclean  is  an  important  part 
of  the  priestly  function. 

Ezek.  22:26 ;  44 : 23. 

5.  Everything  connected  with  religion  must  be  clean. 
•Ezek.  22:26;  43:20-26;  44:25;  46:19-24. 

6.  Methods  of  purification. 

Ezek.  36:  25  ;  43  :  18-26  ;  44  :  26  f. 
§129.  Questions  and  Suggestions. —  Ezekiel's  intermediate  position 
and  the  peculiar  situation   to  which   his  work   is  addressed  make  the 
material  of  his  sermons  especially  interesting. 

1.  Consider  the  significance  of  the  fact  (i)  that  seventy  elders  are 
present,  and  that  the  idols  (/.  e.,  likenesses  of  reptiles  and  abominable 
beasts)  are  being  worshiped ;  (2)  that  the  presiding  priest  was  the  head 
of  one  of  the  animal  clans  (viz.,  the  Cony).  Does  this  indicate  that 
even  in  this  late  period  animal-worship  prevails  ? 

2.  Note  Ezekiel's  contention  concerning  his  own  cleanness,  and 
the  formulation  of  his  idea  of  uncleanness. 

3.  Consider  the  representations  made  by  Ezekiel  of  uncleanness, 
including  that  of  the  land,  and  note  the  various  occasions  which  give 
rise  to  uncleanness. 

4.  Observe  the  part  which  the  priest  is  to  play  in  giving  instruc- 
tion upon  the  subject  of  cleanness  and  uncleanness. 

5.  (i)  Note  that  "clean"  now  means  "holy,"  "unclean"  means 
"common;"  to  fail  to  make  the  proper  distinction  is  to  "profane" 
Jehovah;  and  (2)  consider  how  this  later  and  more  developed  idea  has 
arisen  out  of  the  earlier.  (3)  Observe,  also,  that  every  act  connected 
with  a  religious  observance  must  be  ceremonially  clean.  (4)  Consider 
the  bearing  on  this  idea  of  the  establishment  of  boiling-houses. 

6.  Consider  the  methods  by  which  purification  from  uncleanness 
might  be  secured. 

§  130.  Constructive  Work. —  Formulate  the  new  phases  and  details 
of  the  idea  of  "clean  and  unclean"  which  appear  in  Ezekiel,  and  dis- 
cuss the  relation  of  all  this  to  Ezekiel's  idea  of  God. 

§131.  The  Laws  and  Usages  Concerning  Clean  and  Unclean  in  the 
Later  Period,  that  is,  as  described  in  {a)  the  laws  of  the  Levitical  Code, 


124  PRIESTLY    ELEMKM-    IN     i'HE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(d)  by  the  priestly  prophets,  and  (r)  in  the  priestly  histories,  c.  ^^.,  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  Chronicles.'" 

1.  Traces  of  totemisin. 

Isa.  65  :  4  f  ;  66  :  i  7  ;  Lev.  19  :  28. 

2.  Forbidden  food. 

Lev.  17  :  10-16  ;  19  :  26  ;  11  :  1-23,  29  f.,  41-47  ;  7  :  16-19  ;  ^9  :  7  ! 
7  :  22-27  ;  3  '■  14-17  ;  Gen.  q  :  3  f.;  Isa.  65  -.4  f.;  Dan.  i  :  8. 

3.  Sources  of  uncleanness. 

Lev.,  chaps.  13  and  15  ;  20  :  20  f.;  chap.  12  ;  18  :  19  ;  19  :  11-13  ;  Numb. 

5  :  19,  28  ;  31  :  13  ff.;  35  :  33  1;  5:1-4;  2  Chron.  34  :  5  ;  Ezra  9:11; 
Neh.  13:9,  30  ;  Josh.  22  :  17  ;   Isa.  65  :  4  f.;  Dan.  i  :  8. 

4.  Uncleanness  is  contagious. 

Lev.  13:45!;  i4:46f.;  15:4-12,  19-23,  26  f.;  11:8,  24-28,  31-40; 
22  14-6  ;  5  :2  f.;  7  :  19  ;  6  :  10  f.,  27-30;  19  :7-i6,  22;   Hag.  2  :  10-14. 

5.  Methods  of  purification. 

Lev.,  chaps.  14,  15  ;  12  :  6-8  ;  6  :  27  f.;  16:19  ;  Numb.,  chap.  19  ;  6  :  10-21 ; 
35:33  f.;  8  :  1-21  ;  31  :  13-24. 

6.  Everything  connected  with  religious  acts  must  be  clean. 

Lev.    10  :  14  ;     27  :  11,    27  ;    chap.    21  ;    22  :  1-25  ;    7  :  igl>-2i  ;    4:11  f.; 

6  :  10  f.;  16  :  19  ;  Numb.  6  :  6-9  ;  18  :  11,  15  ;  8  :  1-21  ;  Exod.  29  :  36  ; 
2  Chron.  23  :  19  ;  30  :  17-20  ;  29  :  i  5  f.,  18  f.;  Neh.  13  :  9,  22  ;  Isa. 
66  :  20. 

7.  Exemption  from  the  requirement  of  cleanness  is  made  in  the 
case  of  the  Passover. 

2  Chron.  30  :  17-20  ;  Numb.  9  :  6-14. 

8.  Non-Israelitish  land  is  unclean,  and  Israel's  land  also  is  unclean. 
Josh.  22:19;  Ezra  9  :  1 1 ;  Numb.  35  :  33  f . ;  Zech.  13:1  f . 

9.  All  foreigners  are  unclean. 

Isa.  35:8;   Ezra  9:11;  Neh.  13  :  30. 

10.  Instruction  as  to  clean  and  unclean  is   an   important  part   of 
priestly  functions. 

Lev.  10  :  10  f.;   20  :  25  f. 

11.  Traces  of  ancestor-worship. 
Lev.  19  :  28,  32. 

§  132.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

I.  Observe  (i)  that  the  old  totem-sacrifice  still  survives  in  the 
sacrificial  eating  of  swine,  mice,  and  other  abominable  animals;  did 
they  eat  these  because  they  thought  that  in  so  doing  they  were  eating 
the  flesh  of  the  deity,  and  that  this  meant  participation  in  the  virtues 

"  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Levitical  Code  of  laws. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         1 25 

of  the  deity,  as  well  as  in  the  mystic  life  of  the  tribe  ?  (2)  that  the 
old  customs  of  cutting  the  flesh  and  of  tattooing  exist  ;  were  these 
associated  with  the  old  idea  of  ancestor-worship,  and  was  ancestor- 
worship  connected  with  totemism  ? 

2.  (i)  Classify  according  to  the  later  usage,  the  various  kinds  of 
food  forbidden  ;  and  (2)  compare  closely  the  lists  of  clean  and  unclean 
animals  given  in  Leviticus  with  that  of  Deuteronomy  (see  §§125,  2, 
and  126,  2);  (3)  note  what  is  implied  in  the  case  of  Daniel  and  his 
companions. 

3.  Note  and  classify  the  sources  of  uncleanness  as  they  are  indi- 
cated in  the  writings  of  this  period. 

4.  Consider  (i)  the  various  cases  of  uncleanness  {e.  g.,  leprosy, 
plague,  bodily  issue,  unclean  food,  etc.),  and  the  fact  that  a  person  or 
object,  when  brought  into  contact  with  an  unclean  thing,  itself  became 
unclean.  (2)  What  was  the  underlying  thought  of  this  usage,  and  its 
practical  working?  (3)  In  what  way  did  a  holy  thing,  when  brought 
into  contact  with  persons  or  objects,  convey  its  holiness  to  them  ? 

5.  Arrange  and  classify  the  various  ways  adopted  in  this  period  for 
securing  purification  from  uncleanness,  and  compare  them  in  general 
with  the  methods  of  the  middle  period. 

6.  Consider  now  the  extreme  emphasis  laid  upon  ceremonial  clean- 
ness :  (i  )  the  injunctions  to  this  end  ;  (2)  the  historical  facts  cited  ;  (3) 
the  practical  working  out  of  these  commands  ;  (4)  the  rigidity  of  the 
ceremonial  as  now  maintained,  in  comparison  with  that  of  earlier  days 
and  other  peoples;  (5)  the  explanation  of  the  origin  of  this  rigid  cere- 
monial, viz.,  the  desire  to  secure  the  favor  of  God  and  the  fulfilment  of 
the  prophetic  promises  (which,  for  the  most  part,  still  remained  unful- 
filled) by  bringing  the  individual  Israelite  into  such  a  state  of  piety 
and  obedience  as  would  literally  compel  God  to  fulfil  his  promises  ; 
(6)  the  relation  to  all  this  ceremonial  of  the  highly  spiritual  element 
found  in  the  Psalter,  which  was  largely  the  product  of  this  period  ;  (7) 
the  conception  of  God  which  was  implied  in  this  ceremonial,  which, 
indeed,  permeated  the  ceremonial. 

7.  Consider  (i)  the  exemption  from  ceremonial  cleanness  made  in 
the  case  of  the  Passover  feast,  and  (2)  the  explanation  of  it  ;  (3)  the 
historical  case  cited  in  2  Chron.  30  :  17-20. 

8.  Observe  that  (i)  the  idea  of  the  uncleanness  of  non-Israelitish 
land  still  prevails;  and  also  that  (2)  the  land  of  Israel  itself  has 
become  unclean  ;  but  (3)  for  what  reason  ? 

9.  Note  that  the  spirit  of  exclusivism  has  become  so  strong  that 


126  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

all  foreigners  are  regarded  as  unclean.  Consider  the  part  played  by 
this  idea  in  the  conflict  which  later  arose  between  Judaism  and  Hel- 
lenism. 

10.  Observe  (i)  that  it  is  now  a  most  important  function  of  the 
priest  to  give  instruction  concerning  the  clean  and  unclean,  and  con- 
sider (2)  how  difficult  it  must  have  been  to  educate  all  the  people  in 
this  regard,  in  view  of  the  great  multitude  of  details  involved  ;  and 
(3)  the  general  effect  upon  the  priesthood  of  such  an  occupation  of 
their  time  and  attention. 

11.  Is  there  still  a  survival  of  the  old  tendency  toward  ancestor- 
worship  in  (i)  the  custom  of  cutting  themselves  for  the  dead,  which  is 
prohibited,  and  in  (2)  the  special  command  to  revere  the  old  men  ? 

§133.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  show 
the  new  points  which  characterize  the  later  period  in  the  development 
of  the  idea  of  the  clean  and  unclean. 

§134.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

Henry  Hayman,  articles  "  Unclean  Meats  "  and  "  Uncleanness,"  Smith's  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  Ewald,  Antiquities  of  Israel  (3d  ed. 
1866,  transl.  1876),  pp.  144-60;  ScHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1869, 
transl.  1892),  Vol.  II,  pp.  65-78;  J.  F.  McLennan,  Fortnightly  Review,  1869  f.; 
KuENEN,  Religion  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874  f.),  Vol.  II,  pp.  94-7;  Kalisch, 
Commentary  on  Leviticus,  Part  II  (i87i),pp.  1-163;  Oehler,  Old  Testament  Theology 
(ist  ed.  1873,  3d  ed.  1891,  transl.  1883),  §§  142  f.;  E.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture 
(1871,  2d  ed.  -1873),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Totem  Ancestors;"  Idem,  Early  History  of 
Mankind  {2d  ed.  1878),  pp.  284  f.;  Spencer,  Principles  of  Sociology  (1879),  Vol.  I, 
p.  367;  W.  Robertson  Smith,  "Animal  Worship  and  Animal  Tribes  among  the 
Arabs  and  in  the  Old  Testament,"  Journal  of  Philology,  Vol.  IX  (1880),  pp.  75  ff.; 
Idem,  Old  Testament  in  the  fewish  Church  (ist  ed.  1S81,  2d  ed.  1892),  p.  366;  Idem, 
Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia  (1885),  chap,  vii  ;  ScHURER,  A  History  of  the 
Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ  (1885,  transl.  1890),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Clean 
and  Unclean;"  Joseph  Jacobs,  "  Are  there  Totem-Clans  in  the  Old  Testament?" 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archceology,  Vol.  Vlll  (1885),  pp.  39-41;  Andrew 
Lang,  Custom  and  Myth  (2d  ed.  1885),  pp.  260  ff.;  Piepenbring,  The  Theology  of  the 
Old  Testament  (1886,  transl.  1893),  pp.  73-9;  Andrew  Lang,  Myth,  Ritual  and 
Religion  (ist  ed.  1887,  2d  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Tabu,"  "Totem,"  etc.;  Sayce^ 
Lectures  on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion  as  Illustrated  by  the  Religion  of  the 
Ancient  Babylonians  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1887),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Clean  and  Unclean," 
"Totemism;"  Bennett,  Diseases  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1887,  3d  ed.  1896);  J.  G. 
Frazer,  Totemism  (with  numerous  references  to  literature;  1887);  Idem,  articles 
"Taboo"  and  "Totemism,"  Encyclopadia  Britannica  (1887);  W.  R.  Smith,  article 
"Sacrifice,"  ibid.  (1887),  Vol.  XXI,  p.  135 ;  Idem,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (ist  ed. 
1889,  2d  ed.  1894),  additional  notes  A.  B,  C,  and  I;  J.  G.  Frazer,  Golden 
Bough  (1890),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Taboo,"  "Totem,"  etc.;  F.  VV.  Davies,  "Bible 
Leprosy,"    Old    and    New     Testament    Student,    Vol.     XI     (1890),     pp.     142-25; 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         1 27 

McClintock  and  Strong's  CyclopcEciia  of  Biblical,  Theological  and  Ecclesias- 
tical Literature,  articles  on  "Unclean"  and  "  Uncleanness "  (1891);  J.  Lubbock, 
Origin  of  Civilization  (1892),  p.  260;  MONTEFIORE,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1892),  pp.  473  ff.;  Menzies,  History  of  Religion  (1895),  PP- 
S5>  71.  131.  275;  Driver,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy 
(1895),  PP-  70,  164,  291  f.;  J.  F.  McLennan,  Studies  in  Ancient  History  (1896), 
pp.  492-569;  Farnell,  The  Cults  of  the  Greek  States,  Vol.  I  (1896)  pp.  88-101; 
Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (1897),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Animals," 
etc.;  J.  Hastings,  article  "Clean,"  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I  (1898); 
Morris  Jastrow,  Jr., /f^/e^zow  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898),  pp.  397  f.,  662  f.; 
J.  G.  Frazer,  "  The  Origin  of  Totemism,"  Fortnightly  Review,  April  and  May,  1859; 
BvBGE,  Egyptian  Magic  {iHgg),  pp.  232  £f.;  Paul  Haupt,  "Medical  and  Hygienic 
Features  of  the  Bible,"  The  Independent,  New  York,  July  13,  1899,  pp.  1906  f.;  G.  A. 
SiMCOX,  article  "  Clean  and  Unclean,"  Encyclopcedia  Biblica  (1899);  F.J.  Schamberg, 
"The  Nature  of  the  Leprosy  of  the  Bible,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XHI  (1899),  pp. 
162-9 ;  Paul  Haupt,  "  Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitic  Ritual,"  Journal  of  Bib- 
lical Literature,  Vol.  XIX  (1901),  p.  60,  and  note  II3;  McCURDY,  article  "  Animal- 
Worship, "/««w/i  Encyclopedia  {1901);  Andrew  Lang,  Magic  and  Religion  (1901), 
pp.  257-69  ;  R.  G.  MuRisoN,  "  Totemism  in  the  Old  Testament,"  Biblical  World,  Vol. 
XVIII  (1901),  pp.  176-84  ;  E.  Clodd,  Myths  and  Dreams,  pp.  99  f. 

Spencer,  De  legibus Hebraeorum  ritualibus  {\']'i']\,  Hebenstreit,  De  cura  sanit. 
publ.  (1783),  Vol.  II,  pp.  15  f.;  Beyer,  De  haemorrh.  ex  lege  Mosis  impuris  (1792); 
Bleek,  "  Beitrage  zu  den  Forschungen  iiber  den  Pentateuch,"  Theologische  Studien 
U7id  Kritiken,  1831,  pp.  498  f.;  Bahr,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Kultus  (1839),  Vol.  II, 
pp.  159  ff.,  462  ff.;  Sommer,  Biblische  Abhandlungen  (1846),  pp.  183-367;  Saalschutz, 
Das  mosaische  Recht  mit  Beriicksichtigung  des  spdtern  jiidischen  (ist  ed.  1846,  1848; 
2d  ed.  1853),  chaps.  22-32  ;  Kurtz,  "Ueber  die  symbolische  Dignitat  des  in  Num.  19 
zur  Tilgung  der  Todesunreinigkeit  verordneten  Ritus,"  Theologische  Studien  und 
Kritiken,  1846,  pp.  629  ff.;  Danielssen  et  Boeck,  Traite  de  la  Spedalskhed  [Nor- 
wegian =  leprosy]  ou  Elephantiasis  des  Grecs  (transl.  from  the  Norwegian,  1847); 
Chwolsohn, />?>  Ssahier  und  der  Ssabismus  (1856),  Vol.  I,  pp.  146  ff.;  C.  WoLFF, 
"Die  Lepra  Arabum,"  in  ViRCHOW's  Archiv  fiir  path.  Anatomie  und  Physiologie, 
Vol.  XXVI  (1861);  S.  FiNALY,  "Ueber  die  wahre  Bedeutung  des  Aussatzes  in  der 
Bibel,"  Archiv  fiir  Dermatologie  und  Syphilidologie  (1870);  ScHENKEL,  article 
" Reinigkeit,"  Schenkel's  Bibel- Lexikon,  Vol.  V  (1875);  Kohler,  Lehrbuch  der 
biblischen  Geschichte,  Vol.  I  (1875),  PP-  409-19;  L.  KoTELMANN,  Die  Geburtshilfe  bei 
den  alien  Hebrdern  (1876);  Baudissin,  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religionsgeschichte, 
Vol.11  (1878),  pp.  100  ff.;  Frantz  Delitzsch,  "Die  Aussatztora  des  Leviticus," 
Zeitschrift  fiir  kirchliche  Wissenschaft  und  kirchliches  Leben,  Vol.  I  (1880),  pp.  3-10; 
E.  K5nig,  article  "  Reinigungen,"  Realencyklopddie  fiir  protestantische  Theologie  und 
Kirche  (2d  ed.  1883);  Kamphausen,  article  "Reinigkeit  und  Reinigungen," 
Riehm's  Handworterbuch  des  biblischen  Alterthums  (1884);  Frantz  Delitzsch, 
article  "  Reinigungsopfer,"  ibid.;  Noldeke,  "Robertson  Smith's  Kinship  and  Marriage 
in  Early  Arabia,"  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenldndischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  XL 
(1886),  pp.  157-69;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,No\.  I  (1887),  pp.  481  ff.; 
Wellhausen,  Reste  arabischen  Heidentums  {  =  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  III,  1st 
ed.  1887,  2d  ed.  1897),  pp.  52,  106,  156,  176  ff.;  M.  Sandreczky,  "Studien  iiber 
Lepra,"  Zeitschrift  des  Deutschen   Paldstina-Vereins,   Vol.  XVIII  (1895),  PP- 34-40 


128  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(from  the  English  in  The  Lancet,  London,  August  31,  1889);  Riehm,  Alttestamentliche 
Theologie  (1889),  pp.  124  ff.;  Schwally,  Das  Leben  nach  dem  Tode{\%<^2),  see  Index, 
s.  V.  "Taboo  "  and  "  Unrein  ;  "  Baentsch,  Das  Bundesbuch  (1892),  pp.  105  f.;  G.  N. 
Munch,  Die  Zara'ath  der  hebrdischen  Bibel.  Einleitung  in  der  Geschichte  des  Atissatz, 
in  Dermatologische  Studien,  by  G.  Unna  (1893);  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen 
Religionsgeschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d.  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Reinheit,"  "  Tabu," 
"Totemismus;"  H.  Schurtz,  Die  Speiseverbote  (1893);  A.  EiNSLER,  "  Beobachtungen 
iiber  d.  Aussatz  im  heiligen  Lande,"  Zeitschrift  des  Deutschen  Paldstina-  Vereins,  Vol. 
XVI  (1893),  Heft  4  ;  NovvACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie  (1894),  Vol.  I, 
pp.  116  £f.;  II,  pp.  275-99  ;  'QKiiZl^GKK,  Hebrdische  Archdologie  (1894),  pp.  152,297, 
478-89;  T>\\AM.h^'ti,Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie  {\Zq^),%e.&  Index, s.  v. 
"Reinheit,"  "Unrein,"  etc.;  Zinsser,  "  Bemerkungen  iiber  den  jetzigen  Stand  der 
Lepraforschungen,"  Zeitschrift  des  Deutschen  Paldstina- Vereins,  Vol.  XVIII  (1895), 
pp.  41-4;  A.WiENKK,  Die  j'iidischen  Speisegesetze  {iSgS);  A.  Sack,  Was  ist  die  Zaraatk 
der  hebrdischen  Bibel?  (ViRCHOw's  Archiv  fiir  path.  Anatomic  und  Physiologie,  Band 
144,  Supplementheft,  1896);  Stade,  Theologische  Litteratur-Zeitung,  1896,  No.  I,  col. 
10;  Bertholet,  Die  Stellung  der  Israeliten  und  der  Judeti  zu  den  Fremden  (1896), 
see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Reinheit,"  "  Reinigung ;"  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen 
Religion  (1897),  pp.  24  f.,  30,  42,  104,  193,  221  f.;  Frey,  Tod,  Seelenglaube  und 
Seelenkult  im  alten  Israel  (1898),  pp.  173-87;  N.  COHN,  Die  Vorschrift  betreffs 
die  Zar'ath  nach  dem  Kitab  al  Kafi  (1898);  D.  H.  MuLLER,  Sudarabische  Altertiimer  im 
kunsthistorischen  Museufn  zu  Wien  (1899);  J.  PiKLER  AND  F.  Somlo,  Der  Ursprung 
des  Totemismus  (1899);  J.  C.  Matthes,  "  De  begrippen  rein  en  onrein  in  het  Oude 
Testament,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,Vo\.  XXXIII  (1899),  pp.  293-318;  J.  Halevy, 
Revue  semiiique.  Vol.  VII  {1899),  pp.  267  ff.;  GruNEISEN,  Ahtienkultus  und  Urre- 
ligion  Israels  (1900);  Ebstein,  Die  Aledizin  im  Alten  Testavient  {igoi). 

See  also  the  treatises  in  the  Mishnah  entitled  Niddah,  Parah,  Tehoroth,  Zabbim, 
Celim,  Miscath  Arlah;  and  the  commentaries  on  Lev.,  chaps.  ii-iS,  especially  those 
of  Dillmann  (1880),  Baentsch  (1900),  Bertholet  (1900),  and  Driver  and 
White  {Polychrome  Bible,  1898). 

§135.  Supplementary  Topics. 

1.  Consider  the  following  references  to  clean  and  unclean  in  the 
Psalter:  73:1,13;  19:9,12;  51:2,7,10;  24:4;  18:20;  119:9; 
and  summarize  their  teachings. 

2.  Examine  the  following  references  in  the  books  of  Job  and 
Proverbs;  Job  11:4;  33  :  9  ;  17:9;  ^5  :  M  ff-;  25  :4;  9  :  30 ;  37  :  21; 
36:  14  ;  Prov.  14:4;  16:2;  20  :9  ;  and  also  Eccl.  9:2;  and  summarize 
their  teachings. 

3.  Study  the  allusions  to  clean  and  unclean  in  the  books  of  the 
Maccabees  and  formulate  a  statement  covering  them  :  i  Mace,  i  :  37, 
46  ff.,  54,62  f.;  2  :  12;  3:51  ;  4:38,43  f-,  48  f.,  54;  13=47  f-;  2  Mace. 
I  :  18,  33,  36  ;  2:8,  16,  19 ;  3:12;  4:14;  5:27;  6  :  2,  5,  7  f.,  18  ff.; 
7:1  ff.;  10:3,  5;  11:24;  12:  40;  13:8;  14:  36. 

4.  What,  in  general,  is  the  attitude  of  New  Testament  writers 
toward   the    idea   of    clean    and    unclean   as  gathered   from    a   study 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    CLEAN    AND    UNCLEAN         1 29 

of  the  principal  allusions:  Matt.  8  :  2  f.;  10:1,8;  11:5;  12:43; 
23  :  25-27  ;  Mark  i  :  23,  26  f.,  40-44  ;  3  :  1 1,  30  ;  5  :  2,  8,  13  ;  6:7; 
7:25;  Luke  4:27;  5:12  ff.;  6:18;  7:22;  8:29;  4:33,  36; 
9  :  42  ;  II  :  24,  39,  41  ;  17  :  14,  17  ;  John  15:3;  Acts  5:16;  8:7; 
io:i4f.,  28;  ii:8f.;  Rom.  1:24;  6:19;  14:14;  i  Cor.  7:14; 
2  Cor.  6:17;  7:1;  12:21;  Gal.  5:19;  Eph.  4:19;  5:3,  5,  26; 
Col.  3  :  5  ;  I  Thess.  2:3;  4:7;  Heb.  9:13;  James  4  :  8  ;  2  Pet.  2  :  10  ; 
I  John  I  :  7,  9  ? 

5.  Make  a  study  of   the   Hebrew  words  for   "clean,"  viz.,  "dilp, 

nin^ ,  ^:n ,  ^^t  ,  and "  unclean,"  viz.,  ^•z'o ;  cf.  nn2?in ,  yjDTJD ,  *pp-i , 

etc.;  trace  their  usage  in  the  cognate  languages  (especially  Assyrian 
and  Arabic),  and  endeavor  to  determine  their  primary  meaning  and 
their  exact  significance  in  Hebrew  literature. 

See  especially  Baudissin,  Studien  zur  setnitischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Heft  II, 
pp.  1-40;  G.  A.  SiMCOX,  article  "  Clean  and  \]\\c\ea.n,'"  Encychpcedia  Biblica;  ZiM- 
MERN,  Beitrdge  zur  Assyriologie,  Vol.  I,  p.  105  ;  Whitehouse,  Thinker,  1892,  p.  52; 
and  the  various  lexicons. 

6.  Compare  the  similarities  between  the  usages  connected  with 
clean  and  unclean  and  those  connected  with  the  ban  ■^'^'^T^.  How 
may  these  be  most  satisfactorily  explained  ? 

See  §  146,  and  cf.  W.  H.  Bennett,  article  "  Ban,"  EncyclopcEdia  Biblica. 

7.  Study  the  phenomena  similar  to  the  Hebrew  "  clean  and  unclean  " 
found  in  other  Semitic  nations,  e.  g.,  the  prohibition  among  the  Syrians 
against  eating  swine ;  the  putting  off  of  ordinary  everyday  garments 
while  engaged  in  sacred  acts  at  Mecca  and  other  ancient  Arabic  sanc- 
tuaries ;  the  Arabian  custom  and  method  of  removing  the  impurity  of 
widowhood;  the  impurity  of  menstruation,  which  is  recognized  by  all 
Semites;  and  the  many  parallels  found  in  Egyptian  customs  and  wor- 
ship.    What  is  the  common  basis  of  all  these  customs  ? 

See  especially  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  2d  ed.,  pp.  441-56  ;  W.  Max 
MiJLLER,  article  "Egypt,"  §19,  Encyclopcedia  Biblica;  Frazer,  articles  "Taboo" 
and  "Totemism,"  Encyclopadia  Britannica. 

8.  Consider  the  possible  bases  of  classification  of  the  clean  and 
unclean  animals,  birds,  fish,  etc.  Is  the  hygienic  motive  satisfactory  ? 
Is  the  idea  that  certain  things  are  prohibited  because  of  an  instinctive 
feeling  of  abhorrence  for  them  applicable  to  all  cases?  Does  the  pro- 
hibition of  certain  things  have  any  connection  with  their  sacrificial  or 
non-sacrificial  character?  Can  certain  cases  be  explained  as  due  to  a 
belief  that  the  animals  in  question  were  inhabited  by  demons?     Can 


130  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

any  clearly  marked  line  of  demarcation  be  drawn  between  clean  and 
unclean  beasts,  etc.?     Is  a  combination  of  motives  probable  ? 

See  especially  Driver,  Deuteronomy,  p.  164  ;  W.  R.  Smith,  Old  Testament  in  the 
Jewish  Church,  pp.  365  f.  and  note  ;  G.  A.  SiMCOX,  article  "  Clean  and  Unclean," 
Encydopcedia  Biblica;  NoWACK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
1 16-19. 

9.  Study  the  idea  of  "holiness"  carefully  in  the  light  of  the  teach- 
ing concerning  "  clean  and  unclean."  Was  it  thought  of  originally 
as  a  relation  sustained  to  the  deity,  or  as  an  inherent  quality  ?  What 
is  the  history  of  the  conception  from  this  point  of  view  ? 

10.  Consider  the  close  relationship  of  the  idea  of  "clean  and 
unclean  "  to  the  idea  of  God,  and  the  mutual  influence  of  the  two 
ideas.  Note  that  in  the  earliest  times  everything  thought  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  the  deity  was  regarded  as  unclean,  and  that  in  the  later 
period  the  exalted  idea  of  God's  holiness  was  expressed  concretely  by 
a  wide  extension  of  the  circle  of  "  uncleanness."  Trace  the  parallel 
development  of  these  two  conceptions  through  the  course  of  Israel's 
history. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE    LAWS  AND   USAGES   CONCERNING    PRAYER    AND    RELATED   FORMS    OF 
WORSHIP,    CONSIDERED    COMPARATIVELY. 

§  136.  With  prayer,  offered  at  times  to  secure  deliverance  from 
trouble  or  danger,  at  other  times  to  obtain  the  presence  of  the  deity 
and  his  guidance,  there  may  be  associated,  for  purposes  of  classifica- 
tion, (i)  the  vow,  which  was  a  promise  made  to  the  deity  in  case  of  the 
granting  of  a  request;  (2)  blessings  and  curses,  which  were  prayers  for 
good  or  evil  to  one's  friends  or  enemies;  (3)  the  ban  or  sentence  to 
destruction,  which  was  a  formal  curse  or  anathema;  (4)  the  oath, 
which  was  an  invocation  of  the  deity,  or  a  solemn  statement  in  the 
name  of  the  deity.  The  following  may  also  be  regarded  as  indirectly 
connected  with  prayer,  viz.:  (5)  fasting,  a  means  of  making  impression 
upon  the  deity,  and  thus  securing  favor ;  (6)  consultation  through 
oracles,  Urim  and  Thummim,  the  ephod,  and  the  lot,  which  were 
various  means  of  ascertaining  the  divine  will ;  (7)  practice  in  connec- 
tion with  sorcery,  or  witchcraft,  or  magic,  or  divination,  all  of  which 
was,  likewise,  effort  to  communicate  with  the  spirit  or  deity  and  to 
secure  knowledge  of  the  divine  will;  (8)  mourning  customs,  many  of 
which  had  their  origin  in  the  superstition  that  the  departed  spirit  had 
power  for  evil  or  good  over  those  who  were  living,  a  power  to  be  pro- 
pitiated or  averted  by  certain  acts  ;  (9)  circumcision,  which  was  an  act 
of  dedication  to  the  deity. 

It  might  be  said  that  every  act  of  worship  was  xt.2i\\j prayer ;  that 
is,  approach  to  the  deity.     Sacrifice,  for  example,  was  acted  prayer. 

§  137.  Prayer. 

I.    The  early  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.' 

(a)  Divine  mercy  and  aid  are  sought  through  prayer. 

Gen.  r8  :  22-33  ;  19  :  18-22  ;  20  :  7,  17(E);  25  :  21 ;  30:6,  17(E),  22  ; 
32:9-12;  35  :3(E);  Exod.  3  :  7.  9  :  5  :  22  f.;  8:8,  12,  29  ff.;  9:28  £f.; 
10:17  ff.;  14:10,  15(E);  15  :  25  ;  17:4,  8-1 5(E);  32  :  11-14  ;  32  :  30-32 
(E);  Numb.  11:1-3  (E),  10-15,18;  I2:I3(E);  I4:i3-I9(E);  21:7 
(E);  23  :  10(E);  Josh.  7  :6-9;  10:12-14;  24:  7(E);  Judg.  10:10,  14  f.; 
15  :  18;  16:28  ;  I  Sam.  7:8  f.;  15:11;  2  Sam.  15:31 ;  24  :io,  17;  2  Kings 
4  :  33;  6  :  17-20;   19:1,4,14-20. 

*A11  the  references  to  the  Hexateuch  are  from  J,  except  those  followed  by  (E). 
131 


132  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Study  different  typical  cases  of  prayer  for  mercy  and  aid,  and  con- 
sider (i)  the  persons  who  are  represented  as  praying;  (2)  the  nature 
of  the  petitions  offered,  e.  g.,  requests  for  healing,  for  children,  for 
relief  from  frogs,  hail,  etc.,  for  rescue  from  Pharaoh,  for  deliverance 
of  Israel  from  immediate  destruction  after  sin  has  been  committed  ; 
(3)  the  character  of  the  prayers  —  simple,  informal,  naive;  (4)  the 
basis  on  which  request  is  made;  (5)  the  elements  of  prayer  which 
seem  to  be  lacking  in  these  cases ;  (6)  the  indications  of  a  primitive 
stage  of  religious  development;  (7)  the  typical  and  fundamental  ele- 
ments of  prayer  which  are  involved. 

{b)  Divine  presence  and  guidance  are  sought  through  prayer. 

Gen.  24:12-14;  Exod.  33:7-ii(E);  34  :9;  Numb.  10:35  f-:  i  Sam. 
8  : 6,  18,  21;  12: 17  f.;  2  Sam.  7  :  18-29;  i  Kings  3  :6-9;  18  :  24-40; 
2  Kings  19:2-7,  15-19. 

Study,  from  the  same  points  of  view,  another  class  of  prayers,  in 
which  request  is  made  for  the  presence  of  the  divine  spirit  and  for  its 
guidance. 

2.    The  middle  period:  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.' 

Deut.  9:18-20,25-29;  10:10;  26:15;  2  Kings  22:19;  Jer.  3:21; 
10 : 23-25 ;  14 : 7-9,  19-22 ;  15  :  15-18 ;  18 : 19-23;  20  :  i  2  ;  42 : 1-6; 
Judg.  3:9,15;  4:3;  6:6;  2  Kings  20  :  3  ;  i  Kings  8  :  22-6 1 . 

Consider  (i)  the  circumstances  attending  Moses'  prayers  for  the 
people,  his  fear  of  Jehovah,  the  ground  of  intercession,  the  element  of 
confession,  the  naive  appeal  to  the  estimate  which  strangers  may  make 
of  Jehovah's  ability,  or  of  his  purpose;  (2)  the  reasons  given  by  the 
prophetess  Huldah  for  Jehovah's  favorable  answer  to  Josiah,  viz., 
humility,  supplication  ;  (3)  the  spirit  of  dependence  seen  in  Jeremiah's 
prayer  (10:23-25),  and  its  request;  (4)  Jeremiah's  confession  and 
passionate  appeal  (14  :  7-9,  19-22);  (5)  Jeremiah's  personal  complaints 
(15  :  15-18;  18  :  19-23;  20  :  12);  (6)  the  request  of  the  people  that  Jere- 
miah would  pray  for  them,  and  his  consent  (Jer.  42  :  1-6);  (7)  the 
crying  of  Israel  to  Jehovah  in  their  distress;  (8)  the  basis  of  Heze- 
kiah's  appeal  for  preservation  from  death  (2  Kings  20  :  3);  (9)  Solomon's 
prayer  (i  Kings  8 :  20-53)  ^^  the  dedication  of  the  temple  (as  expanded 
and  presented  by  the  Deuteronomic  editor)  —  its  form,  its  contents,  its 
spirit,  its  presuppositions. 

'References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuter- 
onomy. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  1 33 

3.  The  later  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions. ^ 

Gen.   17:  18  ;  Exod.  2  :  23  f.;  6:5;  Numb.   16  :  20-24  ;  Judg.   20  :  18, 
23  ;  21:2  f. ;  Ezra  8  :  21  £f.;  g  :$ — 10  :  i  ;  Neh.  i  :  4-1 1  ;  2:4;  4  :  4  f . 
4:9;  5: 19;  6:9,  14;  9:5-38  ;  13:  14.  22,  30;  Isa.  63:  15—64:  12. 

Consider  (i)  that  an  ejaculation  (Gen.  17:18),  the  cry  under 
oppression,  is  really  prayer  ;  (2)  the  form  and  thought  of  the  prayer 
ascribed  to  the  congregation  (Numb.  16  :  20-24) ;  (3)  the  various  prayers 
recorded  in  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  noting  the  form,  the  content,  the 
spirit,  the  entirely  different  tone  as  compared  with  those  of  preceding 
periods;  (4)  the  exact  particulars  in  which  this  difference  of  tone 
consists. 

§  138.  Constructive  "Work. —  Prepare  a  brief  statement,  covering  (i) 
the  general  content  of  scriptural  prayers;  (2)  the  peculiarities  of  form  ; 
(3)  the  essential  elements  which  make  up  such  prayers;  (4)  any  differ- 
ences which  appear  as  characterizing  the  prayers  of  different  periods; 
(5)  the  place  of  prayer  in  worship ;  (6)  the  usage  of  prayer  (a)  in  the 
Psalms,4  (^)  in  the  wisdom  literature,^  (c)  in  the  apocryphal  books,*  (d) 
in  the  New  Testament,'  (<?)  among  Assyro-Babylonians,  Egyptians,  etc.^ 

§  139.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

Alfred  Barry,  article  "  Prayer,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863, 
2d  ed.  1893);  EwALD,  Antiquities  of  Israel  (-^A  ed.  1866,  transl.  1876),  see  Index,  s.v. 
"Prayer,"  etc.;  Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theology  (ist  ed.  1869,  5th  ed.  1896,  transl. 
1892),  Vol.  I,  pp.  371  f.;  H.  Fox  Talbot,  "A  Prayer  and  a  Vision,"  Transac- 
tions of  the  Society  of  Biblical  ArchcBology,  Vol.  I  (1872),  pp.  346  ff.,  and  Records  of  the 
Fast,Yo\.  VII  (1876),  pp.  65  ff.;  'E.^.Ty'LOK,  Primitive  Cttlture  {1874),  see  Index, 
s.  V.  "  Prayer,"  "Oracles  ;  "  H.  Fox  Talbot,  "Assyrian  Sacred  Poetry,"  Records  of  the 
Past,  Vol.  Ill  (1874),  pp.  131-8  ;  A.  H.  Sayce,  "  Fragment  of  an  Assyrian  Prayer  after 
a  Bad  Dream,"  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol.  IX  (1877),  pp.  149-52;  B.  T.  A.  Evetts, 
"An  Assyrian  Religious  Text,"  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archceology,  Vol. 
X  (1888),  pp.  478f.;  D.  G.  Lyon,  "  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Royal  Prayers,"  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  1888,  pp.  xciii,  xciv ;  S.  A.  Strong,  "A 
Prayer  of  Assurbanipal,"  Records  of  the  Past,  new  series,  Vol.  VI  (1892),  pp.  102-6  ; 
Montefiore,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1892),  pp.  505  f.;  J.  A.  Craig, 
"Prayer  of  the  Assyrian  King  Ashurbanipal,"  Hebraica,  Vol.  X  (1893),  PP-  75-87  ; 
Menzies.  History  of  Religion  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Prayer  ;  "  J.  L.  Nevius,  Demon 
Possession  and  Allied  7>5ifw^j  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Prayer,"  etc.;  Jastrow,  Religion 

3  All  the  references  to  the  Hexateuch  are  from  the  P  document. 
*See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  5  ;   12  ;  51  ;  55  ;  69. 

SSee,  e.  g.,  Job  22  :27;  33  :  26  ;  41  :  3;  42:8,  10  ;   Prov.  15:8;   28:9. 
«See,^.  g-.,  I  Mace.  3:44-54;  4:10,30-34,38-40;  5=31-34;   2  Mace.   1:5  f.,  8. 
23-30;  13:10-12;   14:33-36;  15:21-24;  Ecclus.  18:23;  chap.  51. 
7  Matt.  6  :  9  ff.;   17:21;  21  :  13,  22  ;  23  :  14  ;  John,  chap.  17. 
^See  literature  cited  in  §  139. 


134  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Prayers,"  etc.;  T.  K.  Cheyne, 
Tewish  Religious  Life  after  the  Exile  {\%()%),  p.  251;  Duff,  Old  Testament  Theology, 
Vol.  II  (1900),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Prayer,  etc.;  "  Day,  The  Social  Life  of  the  Hebrews 
(1901),  pp.  2I5f. 

Gass,  article  "  Gebet,"  Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  II  (1869);  Stade, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I  (1887),  pp.  487  ff.;  RiEHM's  Handivorterbuch  des 
biblischen  Alterthums  (2d  ed.  1893  f.).  Vol.  I,  pp.  484  ff.;  J.  A.  Knudtzon,  Assyrische 
Gebete  an  den  Sonnengott  fiir  Staat  und  konigliches  Haus  aus  der  Zeit  Asarhaddons 
und  Assurbanipals,  2  vols.  (1893);  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religions- 
geschichte  (ist  ed.  1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Gebet ;  "  Benzinger,  Hebrd- 
ische  Archdologie  {\%()i\),^^.  ^t2&.;  ^OVVKCK,  Lehrbuch  der  hebrdischen  Archdologie, 
Vol.  il  (1894),  PP-  259  ff.;  DiLLMANN,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie 
(1895),  pp.  184,481;  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israeliiischen  Religion  (1897),  see  Index, 
J.  z*.  "  Gebet,"  etc.;  F.  Buhl,  article  "Gebet  im  Pi.\t&n'Y&i,\.2SVi&v\.t^''  Realencyklopddie 
fiir  prot.  Theologie  und  Kirche,  Vol.  VI  (1899). 

§  140.  The  Vow. 

1.  The  early  period:  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions. 

Gen.  14:21  ff.;  28:2off.  (E);  31  :  13(E);  Judg.  11  :2gff.,  39;  I3:4f., 
7,  14  ;  I  Sam.  1:11,21;  2  Sam.  15  17  f.;  Numb.  21:1-3  (J);  Isa. 
19:21,  25. 

Examine  the  narratives  which  record  the  vows  of  Abraham,  Jacob, 
Jephthah,  the  Nazirite,  Hannah,  Absalom,  Israel  in  connection  with 
Arad,  as  typical  cases  of  vows,  and  note  in  each  case  (i)  the  implica- 
tion of  dependence  upon  and  recognition  of  the  power  of  the  deity; 
(2)  the  motive  actuating  the  individual  to  make  the  vow;  (3)  the  form 
of  expression  employed. 

2.  The  middle  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions. 
Deut.  12:6,  n,  17,  26;  23: 18,  22  f.;  Nah.  2:1;   Isa.  ^^■.^l\  Jer.  44:25. 

Examine  the  references  to  vows  and  note  (i)  the  characteristics  of 
each  case  presented ;  (2)  the  close  association  of  the  vow  with  the  free- 
will offering;  (3)  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  the  harlot's  hire;  (4) 
the  obligation  to  pay  a  vow  once  made  ;  (5)  the  making  of  a  vow, 
wholly  voluntary;  (6)  the  prophetic  point  of  view. 

3.  The  late  period  :    readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.' 

Numb.  6:1-21;  15:3.8;  29:39;  30:1-16;  Mai.  1:14;  Jon.  1:16; 
2:10;  Lev.  7  :  16 ;  27  :  2,  8  ;  22  :  18,  21,  23  ;  23  :  38. 

Examine  the  references  cited  and  note  (i)  the  special  cases  cited; 
(2)  the  increase  in  complexity  of  arrangement;  (3)  the  details  of  the 
law  of  the  Nazirite  ;  (4)  the  circumstances  under  which  the  vow  of  a 

9  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  P  document. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  135 

woman  is  obligatory  or  otherwise  ;  (5)  the  distinction  made  between 
the  vow  and  the  free-will  offering. 

§  141.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  on  the  vow,  which 
will  take  up  (i)  the  religious  and  psychological  basis  of  the  usage;  (2) 
the  various  kinds  of  motives  which  are  seen  to  have  exerted  influence; 
{3)  the  words  employed  and  their  significance;  (4)  the  relationship  of 
the  vow  to  the  free-will  offering;  (5)  the  relation  to  the  oath;  (6)  the 
modifications  in  usage  which  come  in  later  times;  (7)  the  difference 
in  principle  between  vows  of  devotion  and  vows  of  abstinence ;  (8)  the 
place  of  the  Nazirite  order '°  in  Old  Testament  history;  (9)  the  making 
of  vows  among  other  ancient  peoples;"  (10)  the  attitude  of  the 
prophets  ;  (11)  the  representations  in  the  Psalms  ;"  (12)  the  representa- 
tions in  wisdom  literature;'^  (13)  the  representations  in  apocryphal 
literature;'*  (14)  the  representations  in  the  New  Testament  ;'5  (15)  the 
relation  to  prayer  and  sacrifice. 

§142.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

H.  W.  Phillott,  article  "  Vows,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  SCHULTZ, 
op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  191  f.,  371  f.;  W.  R.  Smith,  articles  "Nazarite"  and  "Vow," 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1875);  Idem,  Rel.  of  Sent.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Vows,"  "Naza- 
rite,"'■etc.;  Menzies,  op.  cit.,  p.  74;  G.  F.  Moore,  Judges  ("  International  Criti- 
cal Commentary,"  1895),  pp.  232,  279,  380  ff.;  Driver,  The  Books  of  Joel  and 
Amos  (Camb.  Bible,  1897),  pp.  152  f.;  Cheyne,  op.  cit.,  pp.  189,  254;  G.  B.  Gray, 
"The  Nazirite,"  Journal  of  Theological  Studies,  Vol.  I  (1900),  pp.  201  ff.;  D.  Eaton, 
article  "Nazirite,"  Hastings'  Dictionary,  Vol.  III. 

Vilmar,  "Die  symbolische  Bedeutung  des  Naziraergeliibdes,"  Theologische 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  1864,  pp.  438  ff.;  SCHRADER,  article  "Geliibde,"  Schenkel's 
Bibel-Lexikon;  DiLLMANN,  article  "Nasiraer,"  ibid.;  Oehler  and  Orelli,  article 
"  Nasiraat,"  Realencyklopddie  {zA  ed.);  Grill,  "  Ueber  Bedeutung  und  Ursprung  des 
Nasiraergeliibdes,"  Jahrbiicher  fiir  prot.  Theologie,  1880,  pp.  645  ff.;  Maybaum,  Die 
Entwickelung  des  israelitischen  Prophetenthu7ns  (1883)  pp.  147-53;  Riehm, //a«t/- 
worterbuch,  articles  "Geliibde"  and  "Nasiraer;"  Goldziher,  Muhammedanische 
Studien,  Vol.  I  (1888),  pp.  23  f.;  Smend,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Geliibde;" 
NowACK,  op.  cit..  Vol.  II,  pp.  263  ff.;  Benzinger,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Bann," 
"Geliibde,"  etc.;  Dillmann,  op.  cit.,  p.  141  ;  Marti,  op.  cit.,  pp.  87,  107;  Buhl, 
article  "  Geliibde  im  Alten  Testament,"  Realencyklopddie,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  VI. 

'°See  article  "Nazirite"  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  III. 

"See  article  "Vow,"  Encyc.  Brit.;  Wellhausen,  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  117;  Jastrow,  op.  cit.,  pp.  668  f. 

"See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  22:25;  50:14;  56:12;  61:5,8;  65:1;  66:13;  76:11; 
116:14, 18;   132 : 2. 

'3See,  e.  g.,  Eccl.  5  :  4  f.;  Job  22  :  27  ;  Prov.  7  :  14  ;  20  :  25  ;  31  :  2. 

'♦See,  e.  g.,  2  Mace.  3  :  35  ;  9:  13  ff.;  Ecclus.  18  :22. 

'SSee,  ^.  g-.,  Act3  18: 18;  21:23!. 


136  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§  143.  Blessings  and  Cursings. 

1.  The  early  period:    readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.'* 
Gen.  3:14,  17;   4:11;  9:25  f.;   12  :  3;    27:27-29,  35  (E),  39  f- (E) 
48:  15  f.;  49:  1-27  ;  Exod.  12  :32  ;  21  :i7(E);'7  23  :2i  (E),  25-31  (E) 
Numb.  22  :6;  24  :  9  ;  i  Sam.  2  :  20  ;  14  :  24,  28  ;  17  :  43  ;  2  Sam.  3  :  28  f. 
19:  39;  Deut.  33  :  1-29  (E);  Judg.  9:57;  21  :  18. 

Study  and  classify  the  material  on  blessings  and  cursings  as  fol- 
lows :  (i)  words  used  in  blessing  and  cursing;  (2)  forms  of  expres- 
sion used,  e.g.,  Judg.  21:18;  i  Sam.  2:20;  Deut.,  chap.  33;  (3) 
important  cases  of  blessings  or  cursings,  ^.  ^.,  (a:)  Jacob's  last  words 
(Gen.,  chap.  49),  ib)  Moses'  last  words  (Deut.,  chap.  33),  {c)  David's  curse 
on  Joab  (2  Sam.  3  :  28,  29)  ;  (4)  the  peculiar  lack  of  the  moral  element 
in  the  case  of  Esau  (Gen.  27  :  35) ;  (5)  the  cursing  of  a  hostile  nation, 
e.  g.,  by  Balak  (Numb.  22  :  6),  by  Goliath  (i  Sara.  17  :  43) ;  (6)  the  con- 
nection with  the  oath  ;  (7)  the  blessing  and  curse  pronounced  in 
connection  with  the  Covenant  Code  (Exod.  23:  21,  25-31). 

2.  The  middle  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.'^ 
Gen.  49  :  25  f.,  28  ;    Deut.  11:26-30;    27:11-26;   28:1-68;   29:19-21; 
30:1,  7,  19;  Josh.  8:34  ;    Jer.  29:18;   Ezek.  34:26;   i  Kings  18  :  14  f., 
55  f.;  ^/.  Ps.  68:1-3. 

Make  a  similar  classification  of  the  material  coming  from  the 
middle  period,  noting  as  cases  of  special  interest  (i)  the  arrangement 
for  blessings  and  curses  to  be  announced  from  Mounts  Gerizim  and 
Ebal  (Deut.  27:11-26);  (2)  Joshua's  reading  of  the  blessings  and  the 
curses  (Josh.  8  134);  (3)  the  old  xo^dX  form  of  blessing  (i  Kings  8  :  14  f., 
55  f.);  (4)  d,form  of  national  blessing  {cf.  Ps.  68:1-3);  (5)  prophetic 
use  of  curse  (Jer.  29  :  18)  and  blessing  (Ezek.  34  :  26);  (6)  the  blessings 
and  curses  announced  in  connection  with  the  Deuteronomic  Code 
(Deut.  28:3-14,  15-68). 

3.  The  late  period:  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions." 
Gen.28:3f.;  Lev. 9:22;    25:21;    chap.  26  ;    Numb.  5  :i2-3i;  6  :22-26; 
Neh.  10  :29  ;  13:2;  2  Chron.  34  :24  ;  Isa.  24  :  6  ;  Zech.  5:3;  Mai.  2:2; 
3:9;  Pss.  1 09  ;  37  :  36  ;  Prov.  26  : 2  ;  Dan.  9:11. 

Classify  likewise  the  material  of  the  late  period,  noting  as  cases  of 

'*  All  references  to  the  Hexateuch  are  from  J,  except  those  followed  by  (E). 
'7  This  reference  is  from  the  Covenant  Code. 

•8  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuter- 
onomy. 

"References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  priestly  code  of  laws. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  1  37 

special  interest  (i)  Isaac's  blessing  of  Jacob  (P)  (Gen.  28  :3  f.);  (2)  the 
priestly  form  of  blessing  (Numb.  6:22-26);  (3)  the  forms  of  doxology 
used  in  later  worship  {cf.  Pss.  134;  150);  (4)  the  blessings  and  curses 
announced  in  connection  with  the  Levitical  Code  (Lev.  26:3-12, 
16-45);  (5)  the  thought  even  in  later  times  that  "it  was  worth  while  to 
curse  a  bad  man"  {cf.  Ps.  109);  but  (6)  the  feeling  also  that  only  the 
good  might  be  blessed  {cf.  Ps.  37  :  26),  and  that  causeless  curses  were 
of  no  avail  {cf.  Prov.  26  :  2). 

§144.  Constructive  Work.  —  Prepare  a  statement  on  blessings  and 
cursings,  including  the  following  points :  (i)  the  words  translated 
blessing  and  curse;  (2)  the  forms  of  expression  used  ;  (3)  stereotyped 
formulas  of  benediction  ;  (4)  the  religious  idea  or  superstition  under- 
lying the  usage  —  was  it  really  a  "spell,  pronounced  by  a  holy  per- 
son "  ?  (5)  how  was  this  usage  related  to  magic  and  sorcery  {cf.  the 
curse-producing  water)?  (6)  the  more  important  patriarchal  blessings 
—  were  they  cursings  as  well  as  blessings?  (7)  the  threefold  classifica- 
tion :  {d)  one  nation  by  another,  {b)  one  individual  by  another,  {c)  as 
attached  to  laws  to  secure  their  better  observance ;  (8)  a  comparison 
of  the  three  sets  of  blessings  and  cursings  connected  respectively  with 
the  Covenant  Code,  the  Deuteronomic  Code,  and  the  Levitical  Code  ; 
(9)  a  comparison  of  the  usage  as  it  is  found  in  the  three  periods,  the 
modifications  which  are  made;  (to)  a  comparison  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment representations  on  this  subject^"  —  are  blessings  and  curses  found 
in  the  speeches  of  Jesus  ?  if  so,  how  are  they  to  be  understood?  (11) 
this  usage  among  the  Arabians;"  (12)  this  usage  among  the  Assyri- 
ans ;''^  (13)  the  relation  of  this  usage  to  prayer. 

§  145.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

EWALD,  Op.  cit.,  pp.  76-9 ;  SCHULTZ,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  335  ff.,  346  ff.;  Briggs, 
Messianic  Prophecy  (1886),  pp.  115-20;  VV.  R.  Smith,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in 
Early  Arabia  (1887),  pp.  53,  263;  W.  R.  Smith,  Rel.  of  Sent.,  p.  164;  L.  W.  King, 
Babylonian  Magic  aftd  Sorcery  (iSgt);  J.  Denney,  article  "Curse,"  Hastings' ZJzV- 
tionary,  Vol.1  (1898);  W.  F.  Adeney,  article  "Blessing,"  ibid.;  T.  K.  CHeyne, 
article  "Blessings  and  Cursings,"  Encyc.  Bib.,  Vol.  I  (1899);  Henry  Hayman.  "  The 
Blessing  of  Moses  :  Its  Genesis  and  Structure,"  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Lan- 
guages and  Literatures,  Vol.  XVII  (1901),  pp.  96-106. 

'°See,  e.  g.,  Matt.  5  :  44  ;  14  :  19  ;  26  :  26  ;  Mark  10: 16;  Luke  2  :'28,  34;  9  :  16; 
24:50!.;  Acts  3: 26;  23:12,14;  Rom.  12:14;  Cal.3:i3;  Mark  7  :  10  ;  ii::i; 
Matt.  15:4;  25  :4I. 

"Cf.  GoLDZiHER,  Muhammedanische  Studien. 

^^  Cf.  King,  Babylonian  Magic  and  Sorcery,  passim. 


138  PRIESTLY    ELEM?:iNT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Merx,  articles  "Fluch"  and  "  Fluchwasser,"  Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexikoti,  Vol.  II 
(1869);  SCHENKEL,  article  "Segen,"  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  V  (1875);  Burger,  article 
"Segen,  Segnung,"  Realencyklopddie,  2d  ed.,  Vol.  XIV  (1884);  Riehm,  article 
"Fluch,"  Handivorterbuch  des  bibl.  Alterthums  (1884);  Wellhausen,  op.  cit.,  p.  126; 
SCHWALLY,  "  Miscellen,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  altlestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  XI 
(1891),  pp.  170  ff.;  NowACK,  op.  cit..  Vol.  II,  pp.  251  f.,  261  f.;  Benzinger,  op.  cit., 
p.  146;  Marti,  o/.  cit.,  pp.  91,  116. 

§146.  The  Ban. 

■     I.  The  early  period. 

Exod.  22:19;  (E);«  Numb.  21: 2  (J);  Josh.  8: 26(E);  Judg.  1:17; 
21:11;   I  Sam.  15  :  3,  8,  15,  18,  20. 

2.  The  middle  period.'* 

Josh.  2:10;  6:18;  10:28,  35,  40;  ii:ii  f.,  21;  Mic.  4:13;  Isa. 
43:28;  Deut.  2:34;  3:6;  7:2,  26;  i3:i7f.;  20:17;  Jer.  25:9; 
50:21,  26;  51:3. 

3.  The  late  period.''^ 

Isa.  34  :  2,  5  ;  Mai.  4:6;  Lev.  27  :2i,  28  f.;  Numb.  18  :  14  ;  Isa.  11:15  ; 
Zech.  14:11;  I  Chron.  2:7;  4:41;  2  Chron.  32:14;  Ezra  i  o  :  8  ;  Dan. 
11:44. 

Examine  the  passages  cited  in  the  various  periods,  and  classify  the 
material  thus  gathered  as  follows:  (i)  words  used  to  mean  ban  or 
destruction,  and  their  significance  ;  (2)  classes  of  persons  or  objects  sub- 
ject to  ban,  e.  g.,  (a)  idols,  (^)  individuals  regarded  as  enemies  of  the 
nation,  (c)  cities  or  nations  regarded  as  hostile  (the  Canaanites),  (d) 
individuals  personally  objectionable,  (e)  metals;  (3)  the  regulations  at 
various  times  relating  to  the  ban  ;  (4)  the  modifications  which  are  made 
from  period  to  period,  e.  g..  Josh.  6  :  24  ;  Numb.  18:14;  Ezek.  44  :  29. 

§  147.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  on  the  ban,  taking 
up  (i)  the  sociological  basis;  (2)  its  relationship  [a]  to  the  vow,  [b)  to 
the  idea  of  clean  and  unclean,  {c)  to  taboo;  (3)  a  classification  of  per- 
sons or  things  liable  to  the  ban;  (4)  the  changes  which  came  in  later 
times;  (5)  the  attitude  of  the  prophets;  (6)  the  non-appearance  of  the 
term  in  the  Psalms  and  in  the  wisdom  literature ;  (7)  the  New  Testa- 
ment development  of  the  idea  {cf.  i  Cor.  16:22);  (8)  the  place  of  the 
idea  in  other  Semitic  nations  {cf.  Moab,  Arabia,  and  Assyria).*' 

'3  riiis  reference  is  from  the  Covenant  Code. 

*''  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy. 

»s  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  priestly  code  of  laws. 

^Cf.  Mesha  Inscription,  line  17  ;  von  Tornauw,  Zeitsch.  d.  Deutschen  Morgen- 
Uindischen  Geselhchaft,  Vol.  XXXVI,  pp.  297  ff-:  W.  R.  Smith,  Ret.  of  Sent.,  Index,  s.  v. 
"Ban;"  Stade,  Gesck.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  490  f. 


LAWS    AND    USAGES    CONCERNING    PRAYER  1 39 

§  148.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

EwALD,  Antiquities,  pp.  75-8  ;  ScHULTZ,  op.  cit..  Vol.  I,  p.  390  ;  II,  p.  87  ;  W.  R. 
Smith,  Rel.  ofSem.,  pp.  150,371,  453  ;  S.  R.  Driver,  Notes  on  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the 
Books  of  Samuel  (1890),  pp.  100  ff.;  McCURDY,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments 
(1895-1901),  §  550;  J.  Denney,  article  "Curse,"  Hastings'  Dictionary,  No\.\\  W. 
H.  Bennett,  article  "Ban,"  Encyc.  Bib.,No\.  I;    Yi  K\ ,  op.  cit .,  pp    180,  212  f. 

Merx,  article  "Bann,"  Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexikon,Yo\.  I  (1869);  Weber,  Die 
Lehren  des  Talmud  (1880),  pp.  138  ff.;  voN  ToRNAUW,  Zeitschrift  der  Deuischen  Mor- 
genldndischen  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  XXXVI  (1882),  pp.  297  ff.;  Stade,  Geschichte,  Vol.  I 
(1887),  p.  490  ;  Smend,  op.  cit.,  pp.  21,  39,  147  {.,  288  ;  NoWACK,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
371  f.;  II,  pp.  266-9  ;  Benzinger,  op.  cit.,  p.  363  ;  Dillmann,  op.  cit.,  pp.  45,  126^ 
149  ;  Bertholet,  Die  Stellung  der  Israeliten  und  der  Juden  zu  den  Fremden  (1896), 
pp.  10,  89;  Marti,  op.  cit.,  pp.  31,  39,  47  f.;  S.  Mandl,  Der  Bann  (1898). 

§  149.  Oaths. 

1.  The  early  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.'^ 
Gen.  14  :22  ;  15  :8-ii,  17  f.;  21 122-24  (E);  22  :  15  (JE);  24  :  1-3,  27; 
25  :  33  (E);  26  :  3  (JE),  26-31  ;  31:53  (E);  42:15  (E);  47  :  29  ;  5°  :  25 
(E);  Exod.  13  :  19(E);  Josh.  2  :  12-14,  20  ;  6 :  26  ;  Judg.  21:1;  i  Sam. 
14:24-30,  39.  44  f-;  19:6;  24:21;  30:15;  2  Sam.  3:9f.;  19:23; 
21  : 1  f.,  7  ;   I  Kings  1:13,  17,  30,  51  f.;  2  :  23f.,  36-46. 

Examine  and  classify  the  cases  of  oaths  cited,  determining,  in  each 
case,  (i)  whether  it  is  an  oath  sworn  by  man  to  man,  by  God  to  man, 
or  by  man  to  God  ;  (2)  the  ritual  of  the  oath,  whether,  for  example, 
accompanied  by  sacrifice  of  certain  victims,  by  taking  hold  of  the 
thigh,  by  stretching  upward  the  hand ;  (3)  the  penalty  expected  or 
prescribed  in  case  of  the  violation  of  the  oath;  (4)  any  specially  inter- 
esting uses  of  or  usages  in  connection  with  the  oath,  e.  g.,  Abraham's 
oath  to  Melchizedek,  the  dividing  of  the  animals  (Gen.  15:  10),  the 
treaty  between  Jacob  and  Laban  (Gen.  31  :  44-54),  Rahab  and  the  spies 
(Josh.  2:12-14),  Saul's  adjuration  (i  Sam.  14  :  24-30,  39,  44  f.),  David's 
oath  concerning  Solomon  (i  Kings  1:13),  Shimei  and  Solomon 
(i  Kings  2:42);  (5)  what  is  prohibited  in  Exod.  20:7,  ^^^^^^  s/ialt  not 
take  the  name  of  Jehovah  thy  God  in  vain  (blasphemy,  perjury,  pro- 
fanity, or  sorcery  and  witchcraft)? 

2.  The  middle  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions. 

Jer.  4:2;  22  :  5  ;  31  :33  ;  34  :  i8f.;  38  :  16  ;  Ezek.   17  :  i6-ig  ;  Deut. 
19:  I9£f.=8 

Examine  and  classify  as  above,  noting  particularly  points  of  special 
interest   in  connection  with  (i)  false  swearing  (Deut.   igrigff.);  (2) 

'7  All  references  to  the  Hexateuch  are  from  J,  except  those  marked  otherwise,  and 
Gen.  14  :22,  which  is  from  an  independent  source. 

^'  This  reference  is  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy. 


140  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

the  cutting  of  the  calf  (Jer.  34  :  i8  f.);  (3)  the  new  covenant  (Jer. 
31:33);  (4)  Zedekiah's  oath  (Jer.  38:16);  (5)  breaking  the  covenant 
(Ezek.  17  :  16-19). 

3.  The  late  period  :  readings,  questions,  and  suggestions.'' 

Numb.   5:11-28;   chap.   30;    Josh.   9:15,  19  f.;    Judg.  21  :5,  7;    Zech. 
5  : 1  ff.;  Ezra  10  :  5  ;    Neh.  10  :  29  ;    Dan.  12:7. 

Examine  and  classify  as  above,  noting  points  of  special  interest 
in  connection  with  (i)  the  water  of  bitterness  that  causeth  the  curse 
(Numb.  5:11  ff.);  (2)  vows  (Numb.,  chap.  30);  (3)  the  oath  to  the 
Gibeonites  (as  described  in  Josh.  9  :  15  f.,  19  f.);  (4)  the  oath  concern- 
ing strange  wives  (Ezra  10  :  2-5);  (5)  the  flying-roll  and  false  swearing 
(Zech.  5  :  1-4);  (6)  the  man  clothed  in  linen  (Dan.  12:7). 

§150.  Constructive  "Work. —  Prepare  a  statement  upon  the  use  of 
the  oath  among  the  Hebrews,  taking  up  the  following  points  :  (i)  the 
significance  of  the  usual  word  translated  swear,  viz.,  "  to  come  under 
the  influence  of  seven  things;"  (2)  the  ritual;  (3)  the  various  forms  of 
the  oath ;  (4)  its  irrevocable  character  and  the  penalty  of  its  violation  ; 
(5)  its  sociological  basis;  (6)  the  significance  of  an  oath  made  by  the 
deity;  (7)  the  meaning  of  the  third  commandment ;  (8)  the  changes 
in  usage  which  may  be  noted  between  the  three  periods  ;  (9)  the  atti- 
tude of  the  prophets  ;  ^°  (10)  the  representations  concerning  swearing 
in  the  wisdom  literature ;  3'  (11)  the  representations  in  the  apocfyphal 
literature  ;3^  (12)  the  attitude  of  the  New  Testament;"  (13)  the  use 
of  the  oath  among  the  Arabs ;  ^^  (14)  its  use  among  the  x\ssyrians  and 
Babykmians  ;   (15)  its  relation  to  prayer.^^ 

§151.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

H.  W.  Phillott,  article  "Oath,"  Smith's  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d 
ed.  1893);  EwALD,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Oath,"  etc.;  Schultz,  op.  cit..  Vol.  II, 
p.  70  ;  Y..  B.  Tylor,  article  "Oath,"  Encyc.  Brit.  (1875);  W.  R.  Smith,  Kel.  o/Sem.,  pp. 
180  ff.,  480  ;  V.  J.  Coffin,  "  The  Third  Commandment, "/i:;«r«a/  of  Biblical  Literature. 

"  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  priestly  code  of  laws. 
3°  See,  e.g.,  Hos.  4:2,  15  ;  10:4  ;  Amos  4:2;  6:8  ;  8  :  7,  14  ;  Isa.  14  124;  19: 18; 
45  :  23  ;  48  :  I  ;   54  :  9  ;  62  :  8  ;  65  :  16  ;  Ezek.  21  :  23. 
3'  See,  e.  g.,  Eccl.  8:2;  9:2. 
3*  See,  e.  g.,  i  Mace.  6:  61  f.;  7  :  18,  35  ;  2  Mace.  14:33-36;    Ecclus.  44:21. 

33  See,  e.  g.,  Matt.  5:33  ff.;  14:7-9;  23:i6ff.;  Mark  6:23,26;  Luke  1:73; 
Acts  2  :30;  23:  21  ;  Jas.  5:  12. 

34  Cy.  Wei.lhausen,  /Ceste  arab.  Ileidenthums,  p.  122;  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion 
of  the  Semites,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Oath." 

35  Cf.  Driver,  Deuteronomy,  pp.  94  f. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  I4I 

Vol.  XIX  (1900),  pp.  166-88;  Duff,  op.  cit..  Vol.  II  (1900),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Oath;" 
G.  Ferries,  article  "Oath,"  Hastings'  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  Ill  (1900);  Day,  op. 
cit.,  p.  184. 

Saalschutz,  Das  mosaische  Recht  (1846),  pp.  615  ff.;  Bruch,  article  "  Eid," 
Schenkel's  i5/3f/-Zf'xz/^c«,  Vol.  II  (1869);  Riehm,  article  "Eid,"  Handworterbuch; 
Wellhausen,  op.  eit.,  p.  122  ;  Smend,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s,  v.  "  Schwur ;  "  NoWACK, 
op.  cit..  Vol.  II,  pp.  262  ff.;  Benzinger,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Eid  ;  "  Frey,  Tod, 
Seelenglaube  und  Seelenkult  {\%c)'?,),  pp.  108  f.;  Benzinger,  article  "Eid  bei  den 
Hebraern,"  Realencyklopddie,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  V  (1898). 

§  152.  Supplementary  Study  on  Fasting  as  a  Means  for  Securing  the 
Divine  Mercy  and  Help. 

1.  The  early  period. 

Exod.  34:28(J),  r/.  24:  18(E);  i  Sam.  7:5  f.;  31:13;  2  Sam. 
I  :  12  ;  3  :  35  ;   12  :  16-23  ;   i  Kings  21  :  9,  12,  27. 

2.  The  middle  period. 

Deut  .8:3;  9:9,  1 8-20,  25-29 ;   10:10;  Jer.  14:12;  36  :  6,  9. 

3.  The  late  period. 

Judg.  i8:i7(?);  20:26  £f.;  Ezra  8:21-23;  10:6;  Neh.  1:4-11; 
9:1,31;  Esther  4  : 1-3,  16;  Zech  7  : 1-7,  18-23;  8:  19;  Isa,  58  :  3  ff.; 
I  Chron.  10  :  12  ;  2  Chron.  20  : 3  ;  Joel  1:14;  2  :  12,  15  ;  Jon.  3:5; 
Dan.  9:3;  Lev.  16:29,  31 .3* 

§153.     Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Consider  (i)  the  reason  assigned  by  David  in  2  Sam.  12:22  for 
fasting,  viz.,  to  secure  Jehovah's  pity;  (2)  the  fasting  of  Moses  on 
Sinai  (Exod.  34  :  28  ;  Deut.  9  :  9)  as  a  preparation  for  an  important  act, 
the  receiving  of  the  law;  (3)  the  fasting  of  Elijah  (i  Kings  ig  :  8  ff.)  as  a 
preparation  for  communion  with  God;  (4)  the  fasting  of  the  men  of 
Jabesh  for  Saul  (i  Sam.  31  :  13),  and  of  David  for  Saul  (2  Sam.  i  :  12), 
that  is,  in  mourning  for  the  dead  {cf.  2  Sam.  3:35);  and  determine 
the  original  meaning  of  the  act,  /.  e.,  an  explanation  with  which  these 
various  cases  may  be  connected ;  is  it  to  raise  the  pity  of  the  deity?  or 
in  preparation  for  a  sacrificial  meal  ?  '^^ 

Consider  the  various  cases  of  fasting  cited  and  note  (i)  the  motive 
or  purpose  in  each  case,  e.  g.,  David,  Ahab,  Nehemiah,  Ezra ;  (2) 
whether  they  were  private  or  public  {cf.,  in  earlier  and  middle  periods,  i 
Kings  21  :  9  ff.;  Isa.  i  :  i2)b  (Sept.);  Jer.  36  :  6  ff.;  and,  in  later  period, 
Joel  I  :  i3f.;  2  Chron.  20  :  3);  (3)  the  change  by  which  the  act  becomes 
spiritualized  {cf.  Ahab's  case,  i  Kings  21:29);  (4)  the  connection 
between   fasting  and    penitence  {cf.  i  Sam.  7:6;    Neh.  9:1);    (5)  the 

3^  This  reference  is  from  the  Priestly  Code. 

37  W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  p.  434. 


142  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

circumstances  which  led  to  greater  importance  being  given  to  fasting, 
and  the  changes  in  frequency  of  the  act  and  in  meaning  which  came 
in  the  later  period;  (6)  the  conception  which  makes  it  a  "meritorious 
work,"  and  the  prophets'  attitude  toward  this(Isa.  58  :  3  ff.;  Zech.  7  :  5  f.). 

Consider  the  various  occasions  on  which,  in  the  later  period,  public 
fasting  was  observed  and  the  events  thereby  commemorated  :  (i)  in  the 
fourth  month,  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  52  :  6,  7);  (2)  in  the  fifth 
month,  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  city  (Jer.  52:i2f.);  (3)  in 
the  seventh  month,  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  (Jer,  41:1  ff.);  (4)  in  the 
tenth  month,  the  beginning  of  the  siege  (Jer.  52  :  4)  {cf.  Zech.  7  :  1-7, 
18-23);  (5)  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.,  chap.  16),  noting  (a)  that  this 
is  the  only  fast  required  by  the  laws,  {S)  that  there  is  no  allusion  to  its 
observance  in  any  of  the  historical  literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  (<:) 
the  purpose  of  the  day,  {d)  its  relation  to  the  religious  thought  and  spirit 
of  the  later  times;  (6)  the  thirteenth  of  Adar,  the  case  of  Haman. 

Consider  the  usage  of  fasting  as  referred  to  (i)  in  the  Psalms  ;  ^^ 
(2)  in  the  apocryphal  literature ;  ^^  (3)  in  the  New  Testament  f  (4) 
among  other  Semitic  nations.'*' 

§  154.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

Samuel  Clark,  article  "  Atonement,  Day  of,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
(ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  Schultz,  op.  cit..  Vol.  I,  pp.  367  ff.,  372,  402  ff.,  431  ; 
Oehler,  Old  Testament  Theology  (1st  ed.  1873,  3d  ed.  1 891,  trans).  1883),  §§  140  f.; 
Edersheim,  The  Temple,  its  Ministry  and  Services  {1874),  PP-  263-88;  Wellhau- 
SEN,  Prolegomena,  pp.  1 10-12;  J.  S.  Black,  article  "Fasting,"  Encyclopcsdia  Bri- 
tannica,  Vol.  IX  (1879);  KuENEN,  The  Hexaieuch  (2d  ed.  1885,  transl.  1886),  pp.  86, 
312;  W.  R.Smith,  Rel.  of  Sem.,  pp.  303,  388 ff.,  433 f.;  Montefiore,  op.cit.,  pp. 509 f.; 
C.  J.  Ball,  article  "Fasting  and  Fasts,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.  1893)  *. 
H.  C.  Trumbull,  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life  (1894),  PP-  186,  286  ff.,  383; 
McCuRDY,  op.  cit.,  §§  1 1 16,  1 118,  1346  n.;  S.  R.  Driver  and  H.  A.  White,  article 
"Atonement,  Day  of,"  Hastings'  Dictionary,  Vol.  I  (1898) ;  E.  E.  Harding,  article 
"Feasts  and  Fasts,"  ?3za'.,  Vol.  I  (1898),  pp.  862  f.;  Cheyne,  ^A  cit.,  pp.  9-1 1;  M. 
Jastrow,  op.  cit.,  p.  688 ;  Benzinger  and  Cheyne,  article  "Atonement,  Day  of," 
Encyclopcedia  Biblica,  Vol.  I  (1899);  Benzinger,  article  "Fasting,  Fasts,"  Ency- 
clopcedia  Biblica,  Vol.  H  ( 1901) ;  Ottley,  A  Short  History  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  Roman 
Period  {l()Ol),  pp.  305  f. 

38See,  <r.  g'.,  Pss.  35  :  13;  69:10;   109:24. 

39  See,  e.  g.,  I  Mace.  3  :  44-54  ;  Ecclus.  34  :  26,  ' 

♦°See,  e.  g..  Matt.  4:2;  6:l6ff.;  9:  14  f.;  17:21 ;  Mark  2:  18  ff.;  9:29;  Luke 
2  :  37  ;  5  :  33  «•;  18  :  12  ;  Acts  10  :  30  ;   13  :  2  f.;   14  :  23  ;   27  :  9,  33  ;    i  Cor.  7:5;  2  Cor. 

6:5;  11:27. 

*' See,  tf.  ^.,  the  references  to  the  works  of  W.  R.  Smith,  Wellhausen,  Jastrow, 
and  Black  cited  in  §  154. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  1 43 

HoLTZMANN,  article  "Fasten,"  Schenkel's  Bibel  Lexikon,  Vol.  II  (1869); 
Orelli,  article  " Versohnungsfest,"  Kealencyklopddie  (2d  ed.  1875);  H.  Oort, 
"De  groote  Verzoendag,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  Vol.  X  (1876),  pp.  142-65;  D. 
Hoffmann,  Berliner's  Magazin,  1876,  pp.  iff.;  De'LITZ'^ch,  Zeitschrifi/iir  kirchliche 
Wissenschaft  und  kirchliches  Leben,  Vol.  I  (1880),  pp.  173-83;  J.  Derenbourg, 
"Essai  de  restitution  de  I'ancienne  redaction  de  Massdchet  YJv•^^^o^xx\va.,''  Revue  des 
itudes  juives.  No.  11  (1883),  pp.  41-80;  Adler,  "Der  Versohnungstag  in  der  Bibel, 
sein  Ursprung  und  seine  Bedeutung,"  Zeitschrift  filr  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft, 
Vol.  Ill  (1883),  pp.  178-84;  Kuenen,  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,  Vol.  XVII  (1883),  pp. 
207-12;  Riehm,  article  "Fasten,"  Handworterbuch,  Vol.  I  (1884);  Delitzsch, 
article  "Versohnungstag,"  Riehm's  Handzvbrierbuch,  Vol.  II  (1884);  Stade,  Ge- 
jf/^iV/^/'^,  Vol.  II  (1888),  pp.  182,  258ff.;  Benzinger,  "  Das  Gesetz  iiber  den  grossen 
Versohnungstag,  Lev.  XVI,"  Zeitschrift fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  IX 
(1889),  pp.  65-88;  Schwally,  Das  Leben  nach  dem  Tode  (1892),  pp.  26  ff.;  Smend, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  142,  319,  330  ff.,  396;  NowACK,  op.  cit..  Vol.  II,  pp.  270  ff.;  Benzinger, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  165,  464,  477  ;  DiLLMANN,  Op.  cit.,  p.  184  ;  Marti,  op.  cit.,  pp.  234,  283  f.; 
Buhl,  "Fasten  im  Alten  Testament,"  Realencyklopddie,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  V  (1898);  Frey, 
Tod,  Seelenglaube  und  Seelenktilt  im  alten  /srael  (iSgS),  pp.  37,  81-5,  I17. 

§155.  Supplementary  Study  on  Consultation  with  the  Deity  through 
Oracles,  Urim  and  Thummim,  the  Ephod,  the  Lot. 

1.  The  early  period. 

{a)  Oracles. — Gen.  24  :  12-14  (J);  25:22f.  (J);  Judg.  i :  i  ;   i8:5f.;  i  Sam. 

10  :  22  ;   14  :  ig,  37  ;  23  :  2,  4,  loff.;  28  :  6  ;  30  :  7f.;  2  Sam.  2:1;  5  :  19, 

23f.;    16:23;    21:  if.;    2  Kings  8  :7  ff.;    Numb.  24  :  3,  15  ;    Isa.  15:1; 

Amos  2:11,  16. 
ip)  Urim  and  Thummim. —  i  Sam.  14  :  4if.;  28  :  4-6  ;  22  :  10,  13  ;  23  :  2,  4, 

6,  g-i2  ;  30  :  7  ;  2  Sam.  2:1;  5  :  19,  23  f.;  21:1;  Deut.  33  :  8  (E). 
{c)  The  ephod. — Judg.  8:27a/  17:5;   18:14,20;  i  Sam.  14:18;   2i:9f.; 

23:6,9£f.;  3o:7f.;  Hos.  3  :  4. 
{d)  The  lot. — Josh.  16: 1  (J);  17  :  14,  17  (J);  Judg.  i  :  3  ;  20:9;  Isa.  17:14; 

Mic.  2  :  5. 

2.  The  middle  period. 

(a)  Oracles. — Mic.  4:6;  5:9;  Nab.  2:14;  Zepb.  1:2;  Ezek.  5  :  11  ;  11 : 8, 

21  ;  Jer.  1:8;  2:3. 
{b)  The  ephod.— D^nt.  2  :  28  ;  Judg.  8  :  27^. 
(r)  r>^^/(7^.—Josb.  18:6,8,  10  (R<^);  Isa.  34:  17;  Jer.  13:25;  Ezek.  24:6; 

Obad.  11;    Nab.  3:10;    Deut.  32:9. 

3.  The  late  period.*' 

{a)  Oracles. — Joel    2:12;    Hag.   1:9;  2:4;     Zecb.    1:3;    3:9;    10:12; 

12:1;   Mai.  1:2;    Pss.  36:1;   110:1. 
{b)  Urim   and   Thummim. —  Exod.    28:30;     Lev.    8:8;    Numb.    27:21; 

Ezra  2  163;  Neb.  7  :65. 

4' References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Priestly  Code. 


144  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

{c)  The  lot.—lj%v.  i6  :  8-10  ;  Numb.  26  :  55  f.;  33  :  54  ;  34  :  13  ;  36  :  2  f.; 
Josh.  14  :  2  ;  15  :  I  ;  17  : 1  ;  19  :  I,  10,  17,  24,  32,  40,  51  ;  21  ;  4,  5  f.,  8, 
10,40;  I  Chron.  6  :  54,  61,  63,  65  ;  16:18;  24:5,7,31;  25  :  8  f.; 
26:  13  f.;  Neh.  10:  34  ;  1 1  :  i  ;  Esther  3:7;  9  :  24  ;  Isa.  57  :6  ;  Joel 
3:3;  Jon.  1:7;  Dan.  12  :  13. 
§  156.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Examine  the  various  means  of  consultation  with  the  deity  which 
seem  to  have  been  recognized  as  legitimate  and  proper,  viz.,  oracles, 
Urim  and  Thummim,  ephod,  and  lot  ;  note  the  instances  cited  of 
each,  and  consider  (i)  the  various  circumstances  under  which  such 
consultation  is  held;  (2)  the  underlying  motive  in  each  case;  (3)  the 
relative  frequency  in  the  different  periods  ;  (4)  the  differences  (if  any) 
between  the  usages  named  ;  (5)  the  various  senses  in  which  the  word 
oracle  is  used  ;  (6)  the  different  views  as  to  the  method  of  employing 
the  Urim  and  Thummim  ;  (7)  the  meaning  of  the  ephod  and  its  use; 
(8)  the  place  of  the  lot  in  connection  with  religious  acts. 

Consider  whether,  with  the  growth  of  religious  conceptions  and 
the  higher  ideas  entertained  of  God  in  later  times,  the  use  of  these 
external  helps  increases  or  diminishes. 

Consider  the  use  of  these  or  similar  external  helps  in  consulting 
the  deity,  as  they  may  be  referred  to  in  (i)  the  Psalms,"'  (2)  the 
wisdom  literature,**  (3)  the  apocryphal  literature,"^  (4)  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;"'  and  likewise  as  they  were  employed  among  (5)  the  Egyptians,"' 
(6)  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,*^  (7)  the  ancient  Arabs,"'  (8)  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.^" 

§  157.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

Kalisch,  Exodus  (1855),  pp.  540-45;  E.  H.  Plumptre,  article  "Urim  and 
Thummim,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  W.  L. 
Bevan,  article  "  Ephod,"  ibid,  (ist  ed.  1863),  revised  by  J.  M.  Fuller  (2d  ed.  1893); 
KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel,  Vol.  I  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874),  pp.  96-IOO  ;  W.  M.  Ramsay, 

«See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  16:5  ;  22  :  18;  36:  i;   no:  i;   125:3. 

«See,  e.  g.,  Prov.  I  :  14;   16:33;    18  :  18  ;  30  :  I;  31  :l. 

*s  Cf.  Wisdom  of  Solomon  8  :  8. 

46See,  e.  g.,  Matt.  27:  35;  Mark  15  ;24;  Luke  1:9;  23  :  34 ;  John  19  :24;  Acts 
I  :26;  7  :38;  8  :2l;   Rom.  3:2;   Ileb.  5  :  12;    i  Pet.  4:11. 

■t'  See,  e.  g.,  Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Oracle,  etc." 

<8  See  references  to  Pinches,  Strong,  and  Jastrow  cited  in  §  157. 

■»9See  references  to  W.  R.  Smith  and  Wellhausen  cited  in  §157. 

so  .See,  e.  g.,  Warre  Cornish,  Concise  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities, 
s.  V.  "  Sortes." 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  I45 

article  "Oracle,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (1875);  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena,  p. 
130;  T.  G.  Pinches,  "The  Oracle  of  Ishtar  of  Arbela,"  Records  of  the  Past,  Vol. 
XI  (1878),  pp.  59-72;  see  also  ibid..  Vol.  V,  new  series  (1891),  pp.  120-40;  S.  F. 
Hancock,  "The  Urim  and  Thummim,"  Old  Testament  Student,  Vol.  Ill  (1884),  pp. 
252-56;  KoNiG,  Religious  History  of  Israel  (1%%^),  pp.  107  ff.;  W.  R  Smith,  Rel.  of 
Sem.,  SQQ  Index,  s.  v.  "Oracles,  etc.;"  Kirkpatrick,  The  First  Book  of  Samuel  [C^mh. 
Bible,  1891),  pp.  217  f.;  H.  E.  Dosker,  "The  Urim  and  Thummim,"  Presbyterian 
and  Reformed  Review,  1892,  pp.  717-30  ;  S.  A.  Strong,  "On  Some  Oracles  to  Esar- 
haddon  and  Assurbanipal,"  ^^eVra^,?  zur  Assyriologie,'Q2ind  II  (1894),  pp.  627-45  ; 
J.  F.  McCuRDY,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Oracles;"  G.  F.  yioo^Y.,  Judges  (Inter- 
national Critical  Commentary,  1895),  p.  381;  Hommel,  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition 
(1897),  pp.  280  ff.;  S.  R.  Driver,  article  "  Ephod,"  Hastings'  Dictionary,^  o\.  I 
(1898);  Jastrow,  ^A  «V.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Oracles;"  T.  C.  Foote,  "  The  Biblical 
Ephod,"  Johns  Hopkins  University  Circulars,  XIX,  No.  145  (1900),  p.  40 ;  O.  C. 
Whitehouse,  article  "Lots,"  Hastings'  Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill  (1900);  W.  Muss- 
Arnolt,  "  The  Urim  and  Thummim,"  American  Journal  of  Seviitic  Languages  and 
Literatures,  Vol.  XVI  (1900),  pp.  193-224;  C.  H.  Prichard,  article  "Oracle," 
Hastings'  Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill  (1900) ;  G.  F.  Moore,  article  "  Ephod,"  Encyclopedia 
Biblica,Yo\.  II  (1901). 

Braun,  De  vestitu  sacerdotum  (1698),  pp.  462  ff.;  Bellermann,  Die  Urim  und 
Thummim  (1824);  Bahr,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Cultus,  Vol.  II  (1839),  pp.  131-41; 
G.  Klaiber,  Das  priesterliche  Orakel  der  Israeliten  (1865);  Kohler,  Lehrbuch  der 
biblischen  Geschichte  des  Alien  Testamentes,  Vol.  I  (1875),  pp.  349  f.;  Steiner,  article 
"Urim  und  Thummim,"  Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexikon,  Vol.  V  (1875);  Riehm, /i^aw^/- 
worterbuch  (ist  ed.  1884,  2d  ed.  by  Baethgen  1893  f.),  articles  "Ephod"  and  "  Licht 
und  Recht;"  Kautzsch,  article  "Urim,"  Realencyklopddie  (2d  ed.  1885);  Stade, 
Geschichte,  Vol.  I  (1887),  pp.  466,  471 ;  Wellhausen,  Reste  arab.  Heidenthians,  pp. 
126  f.,  133, 167,  etc.;  Baudissin,  Geschichte  des  alttestamentlichen  Priesterthums  {i%%q), 
pp.  70  f.,  205  ff.;  Lagarde,  Mittheilungen,  Vol.  IV  (1891),  p.  17;  Sellin,  Beitrdge 
zur  israelitischen  und  jiidischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Heft  II  (1897),  p.  119;  WlL- 
helm  Lotz,  article  "Ephod,"  Realencyklopddie, No\.  V  (3d  ed.,  1898);  Van  Hoo- 
NACKER,  Le  sacerdoce  levitique  (1899),  pp.  370  ff. 

§  158.  Supplementary  Study  on  Consultation  with  the  Deity  or  Super- 
natural Powers  through  Magic,  Divination,  Sorcery,  Witchcraft. 

1.  The  early  period.^' 

{a)  Magic  and   divination.— Q&rv.  44:5.    I5(J);    Exod.  22:17;     Numb. 

22  :  7  (J);  23  :  23;  i  Sam.  6:2;  28  :  8  ;  Mic.  3  :  6  f .,  11  ;  Isa.  2:6. 
{b)  Sorcery  and  witchcraft. — Exod.  22  :  18  ;   i  Sam.  15  :  23  ;  2  Kings  g  :  22. 

2.  The  middle  period. ^^ 

{a)  Magic  and  divination. — Deut.  18:9-14;  Jer.  8:17;  14:14;  27:9; 
29:8;  Ezek.  12:24;  13:7-9,  23;  2i:2i£f.,  29;  22:28;  2  Kings 
17:17;  Isa.  44:25;  Mic.5:i2. 

5' References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Covenant  Code. 
5^  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  code  of  laws  contained  in  Deuter- 
<»nomy. 


146  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

[d)  Sorcery  and  witchcraft. —  Deut.  18:10;  Mic.  5:12;  Nah.  3:4;  Jer, 
27:9;  Isa.  47:9.  12;  57:3. 

3.    The  late  period." 

(a)  Magic  and  divination. —  Josh.  1 3  :  22  ;  Lev.  19  :  26,  31 ;  20  : 6,  27;  Zech. 
10:  2. 

{b')  Sorcery  and  witchcraft. —  Exod.  7:11;  Mai.  3:5;  2  Chron.  33  :6  ; 
Dan.  2:2. 

§159.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Examine  the  various  means  of  consultation  with  higher  powers 
which  seem  always  to  have  been  regarded  as  improper  and  illegitimate, 
viz.,  magic,  divination,  sorcery,  and  witchcraft,  noting  (i)  the  various 
circumstances  under  which  such  consultation  is  held  ;  (2)  the  under- 
lying motive  in  each  case;  (3)  the  relative  frequency  in  different 
periods ;  (4)  the  various  methods  thus  employed  ;  (5)  the  external 
sources  of  these  influences ;  (6)  any  internal  source  from  which  they 
may  have  sprung;  (7)  the  prophetic  attitude  in  the  different  periods; 
(8)  the  explanation  of  this  attitude;  (9)  the  relation  of  all  this  to 
idolatry;  (10)  the  essential  element  of  injury  which  it  contributed; 
(11)  the  gradual  disappearance,  and  the  occasion  of  this  disappearance. 

Consider  (i)  the  significance  of  references  in  the  Psalms  ;54  (2) 
in  the  wisdom  literature  ;55  {^^  j^  the  apocryphal  literature  ;5^  (4)  in 
the  New  Testament.^^ 

Consider  the  use  of  these  methods  among  (i)  the  Egyptians  ;5*  (2) 
the  ancient  Arabs  ;S'  (3)  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians;*"  (4)  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.*' 

§  1 60.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

F.  W,  Farrar,  article  "Divination,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (ist  ed. 
1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  ScHULTZ,  op.  cit..  Vol.  I,  pp.  250  ff.,  281  ff.,  283  £f.;  E.  B.Tvlor, 
article    "Divination,"    Encyclopcedia   Britannica,   Vol.   VII    {1878);     Idem,    article 

53  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Priestly  Code. 
s*See,  e.  g.,  Ps.  58  :5.  55  See,  e.  g.,  Prov.  16  :  10. 

s*See,  e.  g.,  Ecclus.  34  :2-7. 

57  See,  f.  g'.,  Acts  8  :  9,  1 1  ;  13:6,8;  16:16;  Gal.  5  :  20  ;  Rev.  9:21;  18:23; 
21  :  8  ;    22  :  15. 

58  See,  e.  g..  Budge,  Egyptian  Magic. 

59 See,  e.  g.,  W.  R.  Smith,  /?ei.  ofSem.,  Index,  s.  v.  "  Omens,"  etc.;  Wellhausen, 
Reste  arab.  Held.,  pp.  135-64. 

*°See,  e.  g.,  Lenormant,  Chaldcean  Magic;  L.  W.  King,  Babylonian  Magic  and 
Sorcery, 

*'  See,  e,  g.,  E.  B.  Tvlor,  article  "  Magic,"  Rncyc.  Brit. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  1 47 

"Ua.gic,"  idid.,  Vol.  XV  {1SS3);  W.  R.  Smith,  ^^/.  0/ Sem.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Charms," 
"  Omens,"  "  Magic,"  "  Witches ;  "  Schurer,  A  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time 
of  Jesus  Christ,  Div.  II,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  151-5;  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (transl. 
1894),  see  y«a'd'x,  s.v.  "  Magic  Art,"  etc.;  Menzies,  £i/.  czV.,  pp.  72, 91,  153;  McCurdy, 
op.  cit.  (1895-1901),  §§  644,  851  n.,  858;  L.  W.  King,  Babylonian  Magic  and  Sorcery, 
Being  "  The  Prayers  of  the  Lifting  of  the  Hand"'  (1896);  T.  \V.  Davies,  Magic, 
Divination  and  Demonology  (1898);  Jastrow,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Magical 
Texts,"  "Sorcer,  etc.,"  "Witchcraft;"  F.  B.Jevons,  article  "Divination,"  Hastings' 
Dictionary,  Vol.  I  (1898);  O.  C.  Whitehouse,  article  "Exorcism,"  ibid.;  T.  W. 
Davies,  article  "Divination,"  Encyc.  Bib.,Vo\.  I  (1899);  E.  A.  W.  Budge,  Egyptian 
Afagic  (iSgg);  Ramsay,  The  Expositor,  July,  1899,  p.  22;  O.  C.  Whitemouse,  arti- 
cle "Magic,"  Hastings'  Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill  (1900);  Duff,  op.  cit.,Vo\.  II,  see 
Index,  s.  v.  "Divination;"  Cheyne,  article  "Exorcists,"  Encyc.  Bib., Vol.  II  (1901); 
Day,  op.  cit.,  pp.  185  f.,  220,  222  ;  Andrew  Lang,  Magic  and  Religion  (1901). 

Brecher,  Das  Transcendentale,  Magie,  ttnd  magische  Heilatten  im  Talmud 
(1850);  P.  SCHOLZ,  Gotzendienst  und  Zauberwesen  bei  den  alien  Hebrdern  und  den 
benachbarten  Volkern  (1877);  Maybaum,  Die  Entwickelung  des  israelitischen  Pro- 
phetenthuvis  (1883),  pp.  7-29;  Stade,  Geschichte,  Vol.  I,  pp.  503  ff.;  Wellhausen, 
Reste  arabischen  Heidenthums  ("Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,"  III),  pp.  126,  135-64, 
215;  Smend,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "  Wahrsagung,"  "Zauberei;"  Tallqvist, 
Assyrische  Beschwbrungsserie  Maqlu  (1894);  Dillmann,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v. 
"Wahrsager;"  Zimmern,  Beitrdge  zur  Kennt7iis  der  babylonischen  Religion  (1896, 
1899);  Marti,  op.  cit.,  p.  45  ;  Frey,  Tod,  Seelenglaube  und Seelenkult  {I'igi),  pp.  180, 
202  ;    Lehmann,  Aberglaube  und  Zauberei ;  Blau,  Das  alt-jiidische  Zauberwesen. 

§161.  Supplementary  Study  on  Mourning  Customs. 

1.  The  early  period. 

Amos  1:16;  8:10;  Mic.  1:8,16;  Isa,  3:24;  15:2;  22:12; 
2  Sam.  3:31;  21  :  lo  ;  i  Kings  21:27;  2  Kings  iQ:if.;  Gen. 
37:  34(E),  35  (J);    r/  I  Kings  20  :  31  f. 

2.  The  middle  period. 

Deut.  14:  if-;  Jer.  16:6-8;  41:5;  47:5;  49^3;  48:3?;  4:8; 
6:26;  Ezek.  24 : 16-17;  29 : 18  ;  27 : 31 ;  7 : 18. 

3.  The  late  period. 

Lev.19  :  27f.;  21:5;  Joel  1:8;  Jon.  3:52.;    Ezra  9:3;  Dan.  g  :  3. 

§  162.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Study  the  references  given  to  mourning  customs,  and  note  (i)  the 
custom  of  weeping  and  its  significance,  in  contrast  with  the  modern 
conception  ;  (2)  the  more  intense  expression  of  grief,  termed  wailing; 
(3)  the  beating  of  the  breast,  tearing  of  the  hair,  rending  of  clothes, 
putting  on  sackcloth,  and  mutilation  of  the  body,  as  expressions  of 
mourning;  (4)  the  putting  away  of  food  to  (or  for)  the  dead  (Deut. 
26  :  14);  (5)  fasting  {cf.  i  Sam.  31:13). 

Consider,  in  connection  with  these  customs,  (i)  to  what  extent  they 


148  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

are  survivals  from  the  age  in  which  ancestor-worship  prevailed  ;  (2)  to 
what  extent,  therefore,  they  had  their  origin  in  the  effort  to  propitiate 
the  spirit  of  the  dead,  which  was  supposed  to  have  power  for  good  or 
evil,  rather  than  in  the  desire  to  express  grief  for  the  loss  that  had  been 
incurred ;  (3)  the  reasons  for  forbidding  certain  of  these  customs  {cf. 
Deut.  14:1;  26:14;  Lev.  19:28);  (4)  changes  which  seem  to  have 
come  about  in  the  progress  of  history. 

Consider  the  representations  made  concerning  mourning  customs 
in  the  Psalms,*''  (2)  in  the  wisdom  literature,*^  (3)  in  the  apocryphal 
literature,'"  (4)  in  the  New  Testament,*^  (5)  among  other  ancient 
nations.*® 

§  163.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

Thomson,  The  Land  and  the  Book  (1859),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Manners  and 
Customs;"  H.  W.  Phillott,  article  "Mourning,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
(ist  ed.  1863,  2d  ed.  1893);  Maspero,  Egyptian  Archeology  (transl.  1887),  pp.  108- 
63;  W.  R.  Smith,  Bel.  of  Sem.,  pp.  322  f.,  336,  370,  43°  ;•  A.  P.  Bender,  "Beliefs, 
Rites,  and  Customs  of  the  Jews,  Connected  with  Death,  Burial,  and  Resurrection," 
Jewish  Quarterly  Beview,  Vol.  VI  (1893-94),  pp.  317-47.  664-71  ;  Vol.  VII  (1894-95), 
101-18,  259-69;  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (transl.  1894),  pp.  306-27;  E.  A. 
Wallis  Budge,  The  Mummy  (2^.  ed.  1894);  H.  C.  Trumbull,  ^'/'wa'zVj  in  Oriental 
Social  Life  {i%<^a,),  pp.  143-208;  Menzies,  op.  cit.  (1895),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "YuncxdA 
Practices;"  Jastrow,  op.  cit.,  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Dead,"  etc.;  Peritz,  "Woman  in 
the  Ancient  Hebrew  Cult,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XVII  (1898),  pp 
137  f.;  T.  NicoL,  article  "Mourning,"  Hastings'  Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill  (1900);  Duff 
op.  cit.,Yo\.  II,  see  Index, s.  v.  "  Mourning  and  Bewailing;"  Day,  op.  cit.,  pp.  204  ff.; 
Wiedemann,  The  Bealm  of  the  Egyptian  Dead. 

Perles,  "  Die  Leichenfeierlichkeiten  des  nachbiblischen  Judenthums,"  Monats- 
schrift  fUr  Geschichte  und  Wissensc haft  des  Judenthums,  Yo\.X  (1861),  pp.  345-55, 
376-94  ;  M.  Geier,  De  Ebraeorum  luctu  lugentiumque  ritibus  (3d  ed.  1868) ;  Ros- 
KOFF,  article  "Klage,"  Schenkel's  Bibel-Lexikon,Vo\.  Ill  (1871);  OoRT,  "De 
doodenvereering  bij  de  Israeliten,"  Theologisch  Tijdschrift,Yo\.  XV  (i88i),pp.  350  ff.; 
Kamphausen,  article  "  Trauer,"  Riehm's  Handworterbuch,Vo\.ll{i'i?:^)  \  Lehrer, 
article  "  Trauer  bei  den  Hebraern,"  Bealencyklopddie,  Vol.  XV  (2d  ed.  1885) ;  Stade, 
Geschichte,  Vol.  I,  pp.  387  ff.;  G.  A.  Wilken,  Ueber  das  Haaropfer  (1886  f.) ;  Well- 
HAUSEN,  i?ifj/f  arab.  Heidenthums  {l^?,']),  Y>p-  i59ffM  178  f.;  Qo-LT>7AliV.K,  Muhamtne- 
danische  Studien  (1888),  Vol.  I,  p.  248;  SCHWALLY,  Das  Leben  nach  dem  Tode  {iSg2); 
Smend,  op.  cit.,  pp.  153  f.;  Wellhausen,  Israelitische  und  jiidische  Geschichte  (isted. 

^  See,  e.  g.,  Pss.  35  :  14  ;  38  :  6  ;  42  :  9  ;  43  :  2  ;  88  :  9. 

'3  See,  e.  g.,  Prov.  29  :  2  ;  Job  2  :  11  ;  5:11;  20  :  38  ;  Eccles.  3 :  4. 

«4See,  ^.  g.,  Ecclus.  7  =  34  J  22:  iif.;  38:i6ff.;  41  :  i  £f. 

«5See,  e  g-.,  Matt.  2  :  18;  5:4;  9:15;  u  :i7;  24:30;  Mark  16  :I0;  Luke  6:25; 
7  : 32  ;   I  Cor.  5:2;    2  Cor.  7:7;    Jas.  4  :  9  ;    Rev.  18:8,  II. 

**See  especially  the  references  to  the  works  of  W.  R.  Smith,  Wellhausen, 
Menzies,  Jastrow,  and  Trumbull  cited  in  §  163. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  1 49 

1894),  p.  143;  NowACK,  fA  cit.,Yo\.  I,  pp.  187-98;  Benzinger,  0/.  <rzV.,  pp.  102, 
165  £f.,  428  ;  Marti,  op.  cii.,  pp.  37,  40  ff.,  116;  Frey,  Tod,  Seelenglaube  und  Seelen- 
kultim  alien  Jsrae/  {i8g8) ;  Bertholet,  Die  israelitischen  Vorstellungen  vom  Zustand 
nach  dem  Tode  (1899);  Krehl,  Religion  der  Araber;  F.  J.  Grundt,  Die  Trauerge- 
brauche  der  Hebrder. 

§  164.  Supplementary  Study  on  Circumcision. 

1.  The  early  period. 

Exod.  4:24  £f.  (J);  Josh.  5  :2  f.,  9  (J);  Judg.  14:3;  15: 18;  i  Sam. 
14:6;  17:26,  36;  18:25  ff.;  31:4;  2  Sam.  1:20;  3:14;  Isa.  15:2; 
32: 12. 

2.  The  middle  period. 

Deut.  10: 16;  26:14  ;  30  :  6;  Jer.  4:4;  6:10  ;  9  :  24  ff.;  Josh.  5  :  4-8; 
Ezek.  28  :  10;  31:18;  32:19,  21,  24-32;  44  :  7,  9;  Isa.  52  :  i. 

3.  The  late  period.*' 

Lev.  12  :  3  ;  19  :  23  ff.;  26  :4i  ;  Gen.  17  :  10-14,  23-27  ;  21:4  ;  34  :i4  f., 
17,  22,  24  ;  Exod.  6  :  12,  30  ;   12  :  44,  48  ;   i  Chron.  10:4. 

§  165.  Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Study  the  references  to  circumcision,  considering  (i)  the  more 
interesting  narratives  concerning  instances  of  circumcision,  <?.  g.,  («) 
Moses'  son  and  Zipporah,  i^b)  the  circumcision  at  Gilgal,  (<:)  the  cir- 
cumcision of  Abraham's  family,  of  Shechem  and  his  family;  (2)  the 
characterization  of  other  nations  as  uncircumcised ;  (3)  the  early 
origin,  how  shown. 

Consider  (i)  the  explanation  of  the  origin  which  makes  it  sanitary, 
i.  e.,  instituted  as  a  preventive  of  certain  diseases;  (2)  the  explanation 
which  connects  it  with  marriage,  as  thereby  promoting  fruitfulness ; 
(3)  the  explanation  that  makes  it  a  tribal  badge,  /.  e.,  a  mark  of  initia- 
tion into  full  membership  in  the  tribe  (which  included  religious 
privileges),  and  therefore  an  act  of  sacramental  communion,  an  act  of 
sacrifice,  a  dedication. 

Consider  (i)  the  place  of  circumcision  in  the  early  period,  viz.,  of 
young  men  ((?.^.,  Gen.,  chap.  34  ;  Josh.  5:2f.;  Exod.  4  :  25), and  as  a  tribal 
distinction  {cf.  Gen.,  chap.  34;  Ezek.  31:8);  (2)  its  place  in  the  middle 
period  :  {a)  not  mentioned  in  history  or  in  the  older  laws,  not  regarded 
as  important ;  (1!^)  circumcision  of  heart  called  for  (Jer.  9  :  24,  25),  while 
the  circumcision  of  Israelites  is  placed  on  the  same  plane  with  that  of 
Edomites,  Ammonites,  and  other  nations;  (r)  the  spiritualization  by  the 
prophets  furnishing  the  basis  for  more  extended  use  in  the  next  period ; 

*7  References  in  bold-face  type  are  from  the  Priestly  Code. 


150  PRIESTLY    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(3)  its  place  in  the  later  period  :  [a)  the  representations  of  its  origin; 
(^)  the  regulations  for  the  performance  of  the  rite ;  (c)  its  position  as 
one  of  the  two  distinctive  ordinances  of  Judaism,  the  other  being  the 
sabbath ;   (d)  its  significance  as  a  rite  of  purification. 

Consider  representations  concerning  circumcision  (i)  in  the  apoc- 
ryphal literature;^  (2)  in  the  New  Testament,*'  and  the  lack  of  allusion 
to  it  in  the  Psalms  and  in  the  wisdom  literature.  (3)  Consider  the  prac- 
tice of  circumcision  among  the  Egyptians,  Arabs,  and  other  nations.^" 

§  166.  Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

T.  T,  Perowne,  article  "Circumcision,"  Smith's  Diet. of  the  Bible  (ist  ed.  1863, 
2d  ed.  1893);  EwALD,  op.  cit.,  pp.  89-97;  Schultz,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  192  ff.;  II,  pp. 
7-70;  KUENEN,  Religion  of  Israel  (1869  f.,  transl.  1874),  Vol.  I,  pp.  238,  290; 
AsHER,  The  Jewish  Rite  of  Circutncision  (1873);  E.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture, 
Vol.  II  (1874),  pp.  363  ff.;  T.  K.  Cheyne,  article  "Circumcision,"  Encyclopcedia 
Britannica,  Vol.  V  (1877);  E.  B.  Tylor,  Early  History  of  Mankind  (3d  ed.  1878), 
pp.  214-19;  YiK\A%c\i,  Bible  Studies,  '?2iT'L  11(1878),  pp.  4-1 1;  Wellhausen, /'rc?/^- 
gomena,  p.  340;  Renan,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  NoV  I  (1887,  transl.  1894), 
pp.  104-9  ;  W.  R.  Smith,  Rel.  of  Sem.,  p.  328;  Bancroft,  Native  Races  (1890),  Vol. 
Ill,  see  Index;  P.  C.  Remondino,  History  of  Circumcision  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
the  Present  (1891);  H.  C.  Trumbull,  The  Blood  Covenant  (1893),  pp.  79,215-24, 
351  f.;  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (transl.  1894),  pp.  32  f.,  539;  Schechter, 
Studies  in  Judaisffi  (1896),  p.  343;  A.  H.  Sayce,  Expository  Titnes,  November,  1897; 
1.  J.  Peritz,  "Woman  in  the  Ancient  Hebrew  Cult,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature, 
Vol.  XVII  (1898),  p.  136  ;  Macalister,  article  "Circumcision,"  Kkstiugs'  Dictionary, 
Vol.  I  (1898);    Benzinger,   article  "  Circumcision,"  Encyc.Bib.,  Vol.  I  (1899). 

BORHECK,  Ist  die  Beschneidung  urspriinglich  hebrdisch  ?  (1793);  CoHEN,  Dis- 
sertation sur  la  circoncision  (1816);  AUTENRIETH,  Ueber  den  Ursprung  der  Beschnei- 
dung (1829);  LuBKERT,  "Der  jiidische  iiri<Jtra<rii()%,"  Theologische  Studien  und 
Kritiken,  1835,  pp.  657-64;  Collin,  Die  Beschneidung  (1842);  S.  Holdheim, 
Ueber  die  Beschneidung  in  religios.  Beziehungen ;  Bergson,  Die  Beschneidung 
(1844);  Salomon,  Die  Beschneidung  histor.  und  medizin.dargestellt  (1844);  Brecher, 
Die  Beschneidung  (1845);  Steinschneider,  Ueber  die  Beschneidung  der  Araber 
(1845);  G.  Ebers,  ^^g-j/^/^w  und  die  Biicher  Moses,  Vol.  I  (1868),  pp.  278-84;  Steiner, 
article  "Beschneidung,"  Schenkel's  Bibel- Lexikon,  Vol.  I  (1869);  Auerbach, 
Berith  Abraham,  oder,  der  Beschneidungsfeier  {2d  ed.  1880);  Weber,  Die  Lehren 
des  Talmud  {i%?io),  p.  373;  Ploss,  Das  Kind  in  Brauch  und  Sitte  der  Volker  (2d 
ed.  1882),  pp.  360  £f.;  Riehm,  article  "Beschneidung,"  Handworterbuch  (1884); 
STKTiK,  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  VI  (1886),  pp.  132-43; 
Wellhausen,  iVfj/^araiJ.  Heidenthums  (isted.  1887),  pp.  154,  168,  215;  HOLZINGER, 

^  See,  e.  g.,  i  Mace.  1:14,  48,  60  f.;  2  Mace.  6 :  10. 

*9See,  e.  g.,  Luke  l:S9;  John  7:22  f.;  Acts  15:5;  16:3;  2I:2I;  Rom.  2:25  £f.; 
I  Cor.  7:l8f.;  Gal.  5 : 2  f.;  6:13;  Col.  3:11;  Phil.  3:5. 

7° See  especially  the  references  to  the  works  of  Tylor,  Bancroft,  W.  R.Smith, 
Wellhausen,  Ploss,  Ebers,  Erman,  and  Reitzenstein,  cited  in  §  166. 


LAWS  AND  USAGES  CONCERNING  PRAYER  I5I 

Einlfiiung  in  den  Hexateuch  (1893),  pp.  133,  365,  437;  Smend,  op.  cit.,  pp.  37  f.,  1 16; 
NowACK,  op.  cit.,  pp.  167-71  ;  Benzinger,  op.  cit.,  pp.  153  ff.;  Budde,  Zeiischrift  fiir 
die  alttestamentliche  IVissenschaft,  Vol.  XIV  (1894),  p.  250 ;  Glassberg,  Die  Bescknei- 
dung  (1896);  Kraetzschmar,  Die  Bundesvorstellung  im  Alten  Testament  (1896), 
pp.  165,  174;  Bertholet,  Die  Stellung  der  Israeliten  und  der  Juden  zu  den  Fretn- 
den  (1896),  see  Index,  s.  v.  "Beschneidung;"  Marti,  op.  cit.,  pp.  43,  163  f.;  J. 
Jaeger,  "  Ueber  die  Beschneidung,"  Neue  kirchliche  Zeitschrift,  July,  1898,  pp.  479-91 ; 
Zeydner,  "  Kainszeichen,  Keniter  und  Beschneidung,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttesta- 
mentliche IVissenschaft,  Vol.  XVIII  ( 1 898),  pp.  120-25;  RZITZENSTEIH,  Zwei  religions- 
geschichtliche  Fragen  (1901). 


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